Russian Empire

ThesynonymTsaristRussiagenerallyreferstotheRussianEmpire.

Countryname

TheRussianEmpirewasthenameofRussiafrom1721to1917.AccordingtotheviewpointsofthemainstreamschoolsofRussiaandtheworld,theRussianTsaristStatewasthetitleofRussiafrom1547to1721.In1721,PeterIwasawardedthetitleof"EmperorofAllRussia"bytheRussianSenateafterhisvictoryintheGreatNorthernWarwithSweden.,Officiallycalledtheemperor,sincethentheofficialcountrynameofRussiahasbeenthe"RussianEmpire",andthetitleof"RussianTsar(Caesar)"hasalsobecomethe"EmperorofRussia".

History

Earlyhistory

TheancestorsoftheRussiannationareabranchoftheEasternSlavswhogrewupintheplainsofEasternEurope.TheRussiannationisanationthatisgoodatmobility,andSolovyovcalledita"liquidfactor."AsamemberoftheEasternSlavs,theearlyRussianslivedonthevasteasternEuropeanplainsfromtheDniesterRiverinthewest,theDnieperRiverintheeast,andthenorthernbankoftheBlackSea.Thegeneralgeographyofthislandis:forestsandswampsareinterlaced,riversarecrisscross,thesoilismainlysandyclay,anditisfarawayfromtheoceanandconnectedtotheprairie.

AtthebeginningofAD,theEasternSlavsstillretainedtheclansystem,andeachtribewascomposedofseveralclans.Theycutdownforests,leveledtheland,engagedinfarming,collectivelyraisedlivestock,huntedandfished,andallissuesweredecidedbytheclanassembly.

TheancientRuscountrywasformedintheinlandplainsandforestareasofeasternEuropeattheendofthe9thcentury.In862,RurikruledNovgorod.In882,Rurik’srelatives,GrandDukeOlegoftheNovgorodPrincipality,conqueredthePrincipalityofKievandsomeothertribes,andgraduallyestablishedacountrycenteredonKiev(knownasKievanRusinhistory)andobtainedthetitleofGrandDukeofKiev.Latersuccessorsinclude:Igor(912-945);Olga(Igor'swife945-962);Svyatoslav(965-973);VladimirKingI(reignedfrom978to1015),thecountryhasundergoneadevelopmentandevolutionfromtheautocraticrule(862to1132)totheperiodofthenobilityruledbythefief.Atthebeginningofthe13thcentury,KievanRusdeclinedandthefeudalsystemwasseparatedfromthevassals.

In1237,theMongolianempire,foundedbythenomadicMongolianswhoroseontheMongoliansteppeinnortheasternAsia,invadedtheNortheastRusofnortheasternEurope,capturedRyazan,andcapturedKievin1240.TheseparatismoftheprincesandtheriseofthePrincipalityofMoscow.TheGrandDukeofMoscowIvanKalida(1325-1340)wasawardedthetitleofGrandDukeofVladimirandAll-Russian,knownas"IvanI"inhistory.ItssuccessorisIvanII(reignedfrom1341to1359).

DukeDimitriDonskoy,whoreignedfrom1359to1389,ledtheRussianPrincipalitiestodefeattheMongolianGoldenHordeforthefirsttimeandachievedtemporaryindependence.Butsoon,Independencewascancelled.In1380,DukeDmitry(reignedfrom1359to1389)ledhisarmytodefeattheMongolianarmyintheDonRiverPlain,andwashonoredasDmitryDonskoy(alsoknownas"DmitryoftheDon").TherearealsoprincesofMoscow:VasilyI(1389-1425),therelationshipwiththeGoldenHordehasbeengoodandbad,andconflictsoccurfromtimetotime.Atthistime,thePrincipalityofMoscowmergedwithneighboringRussianPrincipalitiesandcontinuedtoaccumulatestrength.ThePrincipalityofMoscowbegantopossessthestrengthofnationalindependence.VasilyII(reigned1425-1462),IvanIII(reigned1462-1505).

Theformationofthenation

IvanIII(reignedfrom1462to1505)playedahugehistoricalrole.IvanIIIistheGrandDukeofMoscow,oneofthefamousprincesinRussianhistory.DuringthetimeofIvanIII,MoscowunifiedtheRussianprincipalitiesofYaroslavl,Novgorod,TverandPerm.IvanIIIisaveryluckyDukeofMoscow.

OnMay29,1453,aftertwoyearsofsiege,MohammedIIcapturedConstantinople(Istanbul),andtheEasternRomanEmperorConstantineXIdiedinbattle.TheEasternRomanEmpirefell.SophiaPaleorog,thenieceofthelastEasternRomanEmperorConstantineXI,marriedIvanIII,theGrandDukeofRussia,andbecamethesecondwifeofIvanIII.SophiaPaleorogandThesonofIvanIIIofRussiasucceededtothethroneandbecameVasilyIII,andsincethenhehascalledhimselfthethird"Rome".

In1472,hemarriedSophiaPaleorog,thenieceofthelastemperoroftheByzantineEmpire,ConstantineXI,ashiswife.In1480,duringthebattlewithAhmadKhan,hewasgreedyforfear.ThedeadIvanIIIranaway,buttheRussianarmystillinsistednottoretreat.Duetothecoldweather,AhmadKhanretreatedwithoutafight.IvanIIIheardthattheMongol-Tatararmyhadretreated,andonlythepeoplearoundhimwerethere.Persuadedtoreturntothefrontlineandpickedupavictory,sohestoppedpayingtributetotheGoldenHorde,endingtwoandahalfcenturiesofMongolrule,andtheGrandDuchyofMoscowbecameindependent.Inthelate15thcentury,MoscowgraduallycirculatedasayingthatthePrincipalityofMoscowwasthesuccessoroftheByzantineEmpireandthatMoscowwas"thethirdandpermanentRome."IvanIIIalsoreferredtohimselfas"царь"twiceinthedocument,butheneverdaredtoofficiallycallhimselftheTsar.ItwasIvanIV(1547)whowasofficiallycrownedastheTsarandpubliclycalledtheTsar.

In1497,IvanIIIpromulgatedthecode(sudebnik),whichinitiallyestablishedthegovernmentinstitutionsoftheGrandDuchyofMoscow.Inthiscode,thedouble-headedeagleofByzantiumisstipulatedasthenationalemblemofRussia.Inthesameyear,agildeddouble-headedeagleemblemwasplacedontheSpasskayachamberoftheKremlin.Russiahasobtainedasymbolofitsowncountry.Alsointhiscode,healsorestrictedthemovementofpeasants,stipulatingthatonlyduringthetwoweeksbeforeandafterSt.Yuri’sDay(November26intheRussiancalendar),peasantscouldleavethelandandmovearound,openinguptheserfdomofthePrincipalityofMoscow.process.

VasilyIIIIvanovich,sonofIvanIIIandSofia.TheGrandDukeofMoscow.Inheritthefather'spolicyandstrivetounifyRussia.ThePrincipalityofPskovwasannexedin1510,andthePrincipalityofRyazanwasannexedin1521,whichroughlycompletedtheunificationoftheprincipalitiesofNortheastRussia.Soitwasdeclaredthat"mywillisthewillofGod",nonoblesandprinceswereallowedtoparticipateinpolitics,andallproblemswereresolvedinanautocraticmanner.Duringthisperiod,someone(themonkPhiloffee)madeatributetotheGrandDuke,sayingthat"MoscowisthethirdRomeandwillalwaysprosper",praisingthiskindofauthoritarianrule.Severepenaltiesareimposedonopponentsofecumenicalpolitics.Therefore,NeilScheusky,MaximGlerk,etc.causeddifficulties.Intermsofforeignpolicy,theexchangeswiththeCrimeanKhanateandtheKazanKhanatethatweresplitfromtheGoldenHordehavegraduallycomeupontheagenda.ThewaragainstLithuaniawasalsointermittent.

CoronationoftheTsar

IvanIVVasilyevich,thesonofVasilyIIIandYelenaGrinskaya.Hetookthethroneattheageofthree,andhismotherwastemporarilyregent,butsufferedfromthebrutalityofthenobles.CrownedastheTsarin1547,Russiabeganitsforeignexpansionpolicy.Withthesupportofthefeudallordclass,aspecialmeetingwasestablishedin1549tocompileanewcodetoreformthelocalandcentralpolitical,administrative,economic,andmilitary,especiallymilitaryreforms,tomakeRussiastronger;itbrokeallthepowerofthelordgovernmentoverthetsarRestrictions,whiletheformerecumenicalpowerswereverysmall,andsubjecttomanyrestrictionsbythelords,IvanIVeliminatedthelords'regime,establishedatsaristregime,combatedlocalseparatistforces,andunifiedRussia;afterthemilitarybecamestrong,hebegantoexpandabroad.TheKazanKhanatewasdestroyedintheexpeditionfrom1547to1552,andtheAstrakhanKhanatewasannexedin1556.By1557,theSiberianKhanatealsosurrenderedtoIvan.ThentheGreatNogaiKhanatesurrenderedtoRussia.

DuringIvanIV,Russiabegantobecomeamulti-ethniccountry.TheCrimeanKhanatewassmashedin1572.ThedestructionoftheKazanKhanatewasamajorturningpointinthehistoryofRussia.ItmarkedthatfromnowontheRussianpowerwasstrongerthantheMongolTatars.ThedestructionofKazanchangedthepowerbalancebetweentheRussiansandtheMongolTatars;crushedtheKrim.Significantly,theCrimeanKhanatewasthewhipofOttomanTurkey.Atthattime,theshadowofOttomanTurkey’sadvancingaggressionenvelopedtheentireEasternEuropeancontinent,andthesmashingoftheCrimeanKhanatemadeitimpossibleforOttomanTurkeytoruleRussiaandEasternEurope.TheroadtoSiberia.

TakingtheopportunityoftheBritishshiptoopenupthenorthernroute,IvanbegantoexploretheshortcuttoWesternEurope.In1558,theLivonianWarwaslaunchedinanattempttoexpandintotheBalticSea.Duetotheinterventionofneighboringcountriesandoppositionfromthenobles,thewarwasprolongedandfoughtfor25years.Althoughitdidnotachievethedesiredgoal,itshowedRussia'snationalpowertoEurope.

IthasaprofoundinfluenceinthehistoryofRussia.ThemythsandlegendsaboutIvantheTerriblearenumerousinRussia,andtheyarestillwidelycirculatedinthepresentage.Heisanoutstandingpolitician,militarystrategist,diplomat,andwriter,andamodelofthecountry'sphilosophicalwisdom,butheisalmostalunatic.AlthoughIvanisawise,wiseandcapablemonarch,ontheotherhand,hehasstrongsuspicionincharacter,soexcited,cruel,andseverelysuppressingthenobles.Inarage,theeldestson,PrinceIvan,wasbeatentodeathwithastick,whichmadepeoplefeelparticularlyhorrifiedandterrified.Thenickname"LeiDi"camefromthis.

In1547,IvanIVproclaimedhimself"Tsar".SincetheRurikDynasty,hiscapitalhasbeenMoscow,andhiscountryhasbeencalledRussia.Fedor,thesonofIvanIV,hadnochildren,andafterhisdeath,theLurikdynastybecameextinct.TheAll-RussianMeetingofJinGentryelectedGotonovastheRussianTsar.HeinheritedthelegacyofIvantheTerrible,stoppedthewarwithPoland,launchedawartoSwedeninthenorth,andexpandedtheBalticSeamouth.EastwardcontinuedtoinvadetheSiberianKhanate,whiletheSouthfoughttheCrimeanKhanateandbuiltaseriesoffortifiedcities.HepromotedtheprocessofserfdominRussia,stipulatingthatifafreepersonworkedforanotherpersonformorethansixmonths,hewouldbecomeaslavetothatperson.Itwasalsoannouncedthattheperiodforhuntingdownfugitiveserfswasfiveyears.SerfuprisingscontinuedinRussiaattheendofthereign.Diedin1605.SonFedorascendedthethroneandwassoonkilledbytheinsurgents.

Theperiodfrom1605to1613wasaperiodofvacancyinRussianhistory.In1591,thehalf-brotherofRussianTsarFedorIvanovich,Dimitri,whohadtherighttothethrone,wassecretlykilledbyBorisGodonov.In1604,amanwhoclaimedtobeDimitriappearedandwassupportedbyKingSigismundIIIofPoland.In1605,Godonov'sson,FedorII,waskilledandDimitricametothethrone,knowninhistoryas"pseudoTsarDimitri"or"pseudoDimitri".Duetoapro-Polishpolicy,thepseudo-dimitriangeredthegreatRussianaristocracy.UndertheleadershipofthegreatnoblemanVasilyShuysky,DimitriwaskilledandShuyskybecamethethrone,knownasVasilyIV(1606-1610).In1607,anotherpseudo-dimitriappeared,onceagainsupportedbyPoland.In1610,afterthePolisharmydefeatedtheRussian-SwisscoalitionattheBattleofKrušino,theycapturedMoscowandShuyskywaskilled.Thistime,SigismundwantedhissonWadislavtoinheritthethroneofRussia,butlaterchangedhismindandwantedtoserveastheRussiantsar.ButthePolishinvaderswereexpelledin1612byanarmycalledbyPozharskiandotherRussiannobles.

Inthe16thand17thcenturies,theVolgaRiver,Ural,andSiberianracesjoinedRussiasuccessively,makingitamulti-ethniccountry.Inthemid-17thcentury,theEasternOrthodoxcountriesUkraineandRussiamergedintoaunifiedcountry.

Theestablishmentoftheempire

In1613,theAll-RussianConferenceofGentry(zemskysobor)announcedthat17-year-oldMikhailRomanovwasmadetsar,andtheRomanovdynastybegan.RussiastartedasasmallcountrynearMoscow,anditsempirestatuswasnotrecognizedbyEurope.WhenPeterIbecametheTsar,hebegantofightagainsttheIslamicTatarandOttomanempiresinordertoprotectthebordersoftheSouth.InordertocontinuethewarwiththeOttomanEmpire,PeterbegantosearchforalliesinEuropeandlearnWesternscienceandtechnology.HevisitedBrandenburg(Prussia),theNetherlands,theUnitedKingdom,andtheHolyRomanEmpire(Austria).InAugust1689,PeterIwasofficiallyinpower.

PetertheGreat(3photos)

PeterIbegantoreformfromchanginglifecustoms.InordertomaketheRussianslookmorelikeWesternEuropeans,hepersonallycutoffthelongbeardsofthenobleswhocametoseehimontheseconddayafterreturninghome,andsoondeclaredthatthiswastheobligationofthepeopleofthewholecountry.PeteralsoThelong-usedcalendarinRussiawasabolished,andthecalendarcommonlyusedinmostEuropeancountrieswasreplacedonJanuary1,1700.PeterintroducedmanyculturalelementsfromWesternEurope,themostprominentofwhichwasthedevelopmentofeducationinRussia.HepersonallyhiredseveralBritishprofessorstorunandteachinRussia,andinJanuary1701establishedthefirstsecularschoolinRussianhistoryinMoscow.——MathematicsandNavigationSchool.Sincethen,Peterhasfoundedmanyschools.PeterIbelievedthatmoneywasthelifebloodofwar.AfterreturningfromWesternEurope,heimmediatelycarriedoutcurrencyreformsbasedonBritishexperience,andbegancirculatingnewcurrencyinRussiain1700.Healsocleverlysetupaname,andinjustafewyears,hedoubledvarioustaxes.AfterthestartoftheNorthernWar,theRussianarmywasdefeatedintheBattleofNarvaonNovember19,1700.ThisforcedPetertostepupreformstostrengthenRussia'smilitarypower.

InordertoincreaseopportunitiesforcommunicationwiththeWestandfindRussia'saccesstotheBalticSea,PetertrucewiththeOttomanEmpirein1700anddeclarewaronSweden,oneofthestrongestcountriesinEuropeatthetime.InNarvaontheGulfofFinland,theSwedisharmyprovedthattheRussianarmywasnottheiropponentatall.Fortunately,SwedenwascaughtinthestruggleforthePolishthroneatthistime.Duringthisrespite,Peterbuiltanewwesternizedarmy.PeterIsteppeduptorecruitnewsoldiers,andimplementedacompulsorymilitaryservicefollowingthemodelofWesterncountries.PeterIalsobeganpreparationsfortheconstructionoftheBalticFleetwiththeparticipationoftheBritish;henotonlybuiltshipsinChina,butalsoinstructedtheambassadortotheUnitedKingdomtobuyshipsintheUnitedKingdomonmanyoccasions.WhenthetwoarmiesmetagaininPoltavain1709,RussiadefeatedSweden.Attheendofthe1790s,theexplorerJohnPatekulsuccessfullyformedanalliancebetweenRussia,DenmarkandSaxonythroughtheTreatyofPreobrazhenskoye,andthethreecountrieslaunchedtheBattleofNorthernRussiain1700.AftertheNorthernWarfrom1700to1721,RussiaobtainedtheaccesstotheBalticSeafromtheKingdomofSweden,turningRussiafromalandlockedcountrytoacoastalcountry.

After1712,theRussianczarPeterImovedhiscapitaltoSt.Petersburg(thecitywasrenamedPetrogradduringWorldWarI)togetaglimpseoftheEuropeancontinent.In1721,theRussianTsarPeterIchangedhiscountrynametotheRussianEmpireandcalledhimPetertheGreat.

SetfootinWesternEurope

TheeraofCatherineIIcanbesaidtobethesecondstrongestperiodoftheRussianEmpire.TheempirehasgainedconsiderablenewterritoryintheSouthandtheWest.CatherineII,formerlynamedSophiaFrederickAugust,wasaprincessborninafamilyoffallenaristocratsinGermany.In1744,hewaselectedthewifeofPeterIIIofRussiaandlaterbecametheQueenofRussia.AttheendofJune1762,CatherineIIoverthrewherincompetenthusbandthroughacourtcoupandascendedtothethroneofempress.

DuringEkaterina’sreign,theserfsystemseverelyhinderedthesocialandeconomicdevelopment,andhasbeguntodestroythegreataristocracyandbiglandlordclassbyitself.Mostpeopleinthecountrycalledfortheabolitionofserfdom.CatherineIIwasalsowellawareofthehindrancesofserfdomtothedevelopmentofRussiansociety,butinsteadofabolishingserfdom,shealsoadoptedaseriesofmeasurestoconsolidateserfdomandevenextendedserfdomtoUkraine,DonandVolga.TheriverbasinandthesouthernprovincesmadetheterritoryoftheRussianaristocracycontinuetoexpandandserfscontinuedtoincrease.Shealsopromulgatedtheedict"GivingfreedomtotheentirearistocraticclassinRussia",whichnotonlyexemptedthemfromtheirserviceresponsibilitiesandallowedthemtodirectlyinherithereditaryland,butalsogavethemunlimitedpowertodisposeofthepeasants,andeventheserfscouldbeboughtandsoldatwill.ThePugachevUprisingbrokeoutinRussiain1773.Unabletowithstandtheoppressionofthegreataristocratsandbiglandlords,thebroadmassesofpeasants,thelowerclassofcitizens,minersandsomeCossacksbrokeoutarevolutionundertheleadershipofPugachev.Theyopposedlandlordsandserfdom,butconfirmedthattheczarwasagoodczaranddidnotputforwardslogansagainsttheczar.TheuprisingmadeEkaterinaIIpanic.ShesentheavytroopstosuppresstheuprisingandbrutallyexecutedtheleadersoftheuprisingPugachev,Perfilievandothers,andsentthousandsofsoldiersintoexile.Siberia.

In1768,theRussian-TurkishwarwiththeOttomanEmpire,thegreatIslamicfeudalempirethatspannedEurope,Asia,AfricaandtheBlackSeaandtheeasternMediterraneancoast,andwhichhadbeendominatingforcenturies.Itbrokeoutandendedin1774withthesigningoftheTreatyofLakeKanaka.Accordingtothistreaty,RussiagainedaccesstotheBlackSeathatoriginallybelongedtotheOttomanTurkEmpire,theCrimeanTartarwas"independent"fromtheOttomanEmpire,andEkaterinaannexedtheCrimeanKhanatein1783.

In1787,theSecondRusso-TurkishWarbrokeout.Afterthewarendedin1792,RussiaextendeditspowertotheBalkanPeninsulaunderOttomanTurkey;althoughthepoweroftheOttomanEmpirewasnotcompletelydrivenoutbytheRussianEmpireLocatedintheBalkanPeninsulainsoutheasternEurope,itisnolongeraseriousthreattoRussia.IntheWest,RussiatookadvantageofthedecliningpowerofPolandtopartitionPolandwithPrussiaandAustria.

AsamajorEuropeancountry,afterall,theRussianEmpirewasinevitablyinvolvedintheNapoleonicWars.InJune1812,theFrenchEmperorNapoleonledanarmyof600,000toinvadeRussia.ThisforcewasmorethantwicethesizeoftheregularRussianarmyandwasmorewell-equipped.ButasNapoleonpushedforward,healsofacedtheproblemofover-expansion.RussiausedthestrategyoftheScorchedEarthWar,andNapoleonencounteredthecoldRussianwinter,whichcausedNapoleontosufferacatastrophicdefeat:lessthan30,000peoplecouldreturntotheirhomeland.AstheFrencharmyretreated,theRussianarmyadvancedtoCentralandWesternEurope,andfinallytothegateofParis.AftertheAnti-FrenchLeaguedefeatedNapoleon,EmperorAlexanderIwasregardedasthe"SaviorofEurope."InDecember1825,thenoblerevolutionariesheldanuprisinginPetersburg(thatis,theDecemberistuprising)andwassuppressed.

ExpandingtheEast

Asearlyasthe17thcentury,RussiahadactivelyexpandedintotheFarEastandclashedwithChina’sQingDynasty.ChinaandRussiasignedtheTreatyofNerchinsk,TreatyofBriensky,andTreatyofKyakhtain1689and1727toestablishtheborders,butthisdidnotstopRussia'sambitions.

InMay1858,whenRussiausedtheBritishandFrenchforcestoinvadeChina,RussiathreatenedtheQinggovernmentwithforcetosignthe"AhuiTreaty"withHeilongjiangastheborder.Inthe"Sino-RussianBeijingTreaty"signedin1860,theRussianEmpireevenannexedtheentireOuterManchuria(includingSakhalin)andacquiredtheice-freeportofVladivostoktoexpanditsinfluenceintheWesternPacific.

Ontheotherhand,RussiaisalsoattemptingtoencroachonSakhalinandtheKurilIslandstocompetewithJapan.OnMay7,1875,JapanandRussiasignedthe"KaratoKurilIslandsExchangeTreaty."RussiagavetheKurilIslandsoccupiedbyJapaninexchangeforthesouthernpartofSakhalinIslandoccupiedbyJapan.

From1858to1911,RussiasuccessivelyforcedtheQinggovernmenttosignaseriesofunequaldelimitations,andcooperatedwiththeUnitedKingdomtodividethePamirregionofChinaprivatelytwice,dividinglargeareasofnortheastandnorthwestChina.Incorporatedintoitsterritory,instigatedtheseparationofOuterMongoliafromChina,andarmedinvadersofthe64thTuninJiangdong,Tangnuwulianghai(formallyincorporatedintoRussiain1944)andotherareas,intotal,lostmorethan3.3millionsquarekilometersofterritorytoChina.

Attheendofthe19thcentury,RussialeasedDalianfromtheQingcourtandestablishedtheGuandongPrefecture.RussiaalsoborrowedtheconstructionrightsoftheDongqingRailwaytofurtherinvadeInnerManchuria(thatis,thethreeeasternprovinces),withtheintentionofestablishingtheso-called"YellowRussia".TheaimwastotransformthevastanddenselypopulatedInnerManchuriaintoaRussiancolony.ThisistheultimategoaloftheRussianFarEaststrategy.AftertheGengzi-Russiandisasterin1900(thatis,RussiajoinedtheEight-PowerAlliedForcestoinvadeChina,causeddiplomaticeventssuchastheHailanpaotragedy,theJiangdongSixty-fourTuntragedy,andlootedmanycitiesandtownsinInnerManchuria),theimplementationofthisstrategywasgreatlyaccelerated.ButbecauseRussiawasdefeatedbytheJapaneseEmpireintheRusso-JapaneseWarin1905,andarevolutionbrokeoutinitsowncountry,thestrategicplanbecameapicture.

RussiaonceoccupiedlandinNorthAmericain1787,butin1867itsoldittotheUnitedStates,thecontemporarystateofAlaska,for$7.2million.

InCentralAsia,Russia'searliestactivityinCentralAsiawasintheeraofPetertheGreat,whenithadexpandedtotheKhanateofKhiva.AfterthedefeatoftheCrimeanWar.AttheinstigationofIgnacev,heexpandedtoCentralAsia.DepartfromtheAralSea.GotoKhivaKhanateandBukhara.Thesetwocountriesbecamesubjectstates.In1864,attackedKokandandTashkent.In1877,itoccupiedallofCentralAsia.TsaristRussiaalsoattemptedtoencroachonXinjiangbysupportingtheinvadersoftheKokandKhanate,Agubai,andsenttroopstocaptureIli.Finally,whenZuoZongtangdefeatedAgubaiandZengJizeresolutelynegotiated,he"reluctantly"leftIli,butstilltriedtocutit.HehasleftmanyofChina’sterritoriesinXinjiang.

ModernReform

Inthemid-16thcentury,RussiabecameacentralizedfeudalcountrylocatedintheeasternborderofEuropeandhalfofAsia,andfeudalserfdomprevailed.Duetotheobstaclesoffeudalserfdom,bythemiddleofthe19thcentury,Russia'scapitalistindustrydevelopedslowly,laggingbehindothermajorcapitalistcountries.ThesituationofRussianserfswasverymiserable,withfrequentriots.

Inthefaceofaseriouscrisis,in1861,EmperorAlexanderIIhadtosignadecreetoabolishserfdom.Thelawstipulatesthatserfsare"freemen"inlaw;landlordscannolongerbuyandsellserfsandinterferewiththeirlives;serfscangetapieceoflandwhentheyare"liberated",buttheymustredeemthispieceoflandwithmoney.

Thereformin1861wasabourgeois-likereformcarriedoutbytheTsarfromtoptobottom.Becausetheabolitionofserfdomwasconducivetothedevelopmentofcapitalism,Russiadevelopedintoamoderncapitalistpowerandbecameamoderncapitalistcountry.Amajorturningpointforthecountry.However,thisreformwasnotthoroughenough,leavingsomeremnantsoffeudalism.

Thefalloftheempire

ThefailureoftheRusso-JapaneseWarin1905greatlyincreasedthedissatisfactionofthepeoplewiththetsaristsystem.Alarge-scaleanti-warpetitiontookplaceinthecapitalPetrograd.Unauthorizedshootingbythemilitaryandpoliceresultedintheso-called"BleedingSunday."Thisincidentbecamethefuseofthe1905All-RussianRevolution.Althoughtherevolutionwassuccessfullysuppressed,itseverelyshooktheczar'sauthority.Anditalsomakesreformimminent.SotheCzarusedStolypintocarryoutreforms.AfterStolypintookoffice,heimplementedalandreformsystemandseverelysuppressedthepeasantmovement.Althoughitwasquiteeffective,itwasapitythathestillfailedtofundamentallysolvesocialproblems.

In1914,theFirstWorldWarbrokeoutontheEuropeancontinent.RussiajoinedBritainandFrancetojointheAlliedcamptodeclarewaragainstGermanyandAustria.TheFirstWorldWarbroughtgreatsufferingtotheRussianpeople.Attheendofthewar,inMarch1917,the"FebruaryRevolution"brokeoutinRussia,andtheautocraticruleofTsaristRussiathatlastedmorethan300yearswasoverthrown.

AftertheFebruaryRevolutioninRussiain1917,Russiaestablishedabourgeoisinterimgovernment,whichcoexistedwiththeSovietsofWorkersandSoldiers'RepresentativesestablishedintheFebruaryRevolution.Thereforeitisabourgeoisdemocraticrevolution.TheRussianProvisionalGovernmentholdsthemainpower.Theinterimgovernmentofthebourgeoisiecontinuedtowageaworldwarregardlessofthelifeanddeathofthepeople,whicharousedstrongoppositionfromthepeople.TheyalsoarrestedandkilledBolsheviksonalargescale.TheBolshevikPartywasforcedtogounderground.Duetochangesinthesituation,theBolshevikPartydetermineditspolicyforanarmeduprisinginAugust.

OntheeveningofNovember6,1917,LeninsecretlycametotheSmolnyPalace,theheadquartersoftheuprisinginPetrograd,toleadtheuprising.At9:45ontheeveningofNovember7,1917,followingseveralcannonsfromthewarship"Aurora"parkedneartheRussiancapitalPetrograd,theinsurgentsmovedtotheWinterPalace,thelaststrongholdofthebourgeoisprovisionalgovernment.Launchedatotaloffensive.Intheend,thearmeduprisingwasvictorious.ThisisthefamousRussian"OctoberRevolution"inhistory.

Territory

RulingScope

TheRussianEmpirecrossesthetwocontinentsofEuropeandAsia(acolonywasonceestablishedinAlaska,NorthAmericabetween1799and1856),withanareaof​​22.88millionSquarekilometers(1914),slightlysmallerthanNorthAmericaandmuchlargerthanSouthAmerica.Itwasthesecondlargestcountryintheworldbyareaatthetime,secondonlytotheBritishEmpire.ItsterritoryextendsfromtheBeringStraitintheeast,encompassestheentireplainsofSiberiaandEasternEurope,andreachestheBalticSeainthewest.,SouthtotheCaucasusMountains,theCaspianSeaandtheHinduKushMountains,acrosstheAmurRiver(Heilongjiang)andtheUssuriRivertofaceChina,onlandandLeeKorea(before1910),theJapaneseEmpire(after1905),China(Before1912itwastheQingEmpire,after1912itwastheRepublicofChina),Afghanistan,Persia(Iran),OttomanEmpire(Turkey),Romania,Austro-Hungary,GermanEmpire,Sweden,Norwayandothercountriesorregionsbordered.

Russiahasavastarea,andtheoldplacespanstentimezones(EastSecondDistricttoEast12thDistrict).Russiaattheturnofthe19thand20thcenturies,withatotalareaof​​22.88millionsquarekilometers,coversanareaof​​42%ofthetwocontinentsofEuropeandAsia,accountingfor1/22oftheentireearth'sarea,andabout1/6oftheearth'slandarea.

ExceptfortheterritoriesoftheformerSovietrepublics(Russia,Ukraine,Belarus,Armenia,Azerbaijan,Georgia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan,Lithuania,Estonia,Latvia,Moldova)TheRussianEmpirebefore1917alsoincludedFinland(theGrandDuchyofFinland),Poland,andthenortheasternregionsofTurkey’sArdahan,Artvin,Oder,KarsandErzurumprovinces.Between1742and1867,AlaskawasalsoaterritoryoftheRussianEmpire.

FollowingSweden’sdefeatintheGreatNorthernWar,theTreatyofHaminawassignedinSeptember1809,andFinlandwasincorporatedintotheRussianEmpireasanautonomousgrandduchy.Asaconstitutionalmonarch,theCzarcontrolledtheGrandDuchyofFinlandthroughhisgovernmentandthelocalFinnishSenate,andfirmlyheldthepowerofappointmentandremoval.

Administrativedivisions

Initsheyday,thelandareareached22.88millionsquarekilometers,secondonlytotheBritishEmpireandtheMongolEmpireinhumanhistory.ThemosteasternpartonceoccupiedAlaska(soldtotheUnitedStatesin1867),anditssphereofinfluencewasvast.Forbettermanagement,Russiaisdividedinto81provinces,20districtsand1autonomousregion.

ThepoliticalboundaryoftheEuropeanpartofRussiaisroughlythesameasthenaturalboundaryoftheEasternEuropeanPlain,butitalsooccupiestheConferenceKingdomofFinlandandtheConferenceKingdomofPoland.ItsnorthernboundaryreachestheArcticOceanandtheislandsintheArcticOcean.

TheUralMountainsoftheRussianEmpirearetheterritoryofnorthernAsiaintheeast,Siberiaandthegrasslandsinthesouth.

TheAsianandEuropeanpartsoftheRussianEmpireareboundedbytheUralMountains,theUralRiver,andtheCaspianSea-CaucasusMountains.ThesouthernboundaryreachesthesoutheasternshoreoftheBlackSeaandtheCaucasusMountains.ThewesternborderinthetraditionalsenseextendsfromtheKolaPeninsulathroughtheBalticSeatothemouthoftheDanube,andincludesthepartofPolandoccupiedbyRussia.TothewestaretheKingdomofPrussia,theAustrianEmpire,andRomania.

DependentStates

ThevassalandprotectorstatesoftheRussianEmpire,includingtheBukharaKhanate,KhivaKhanateandTuvaafter1914(TannouLianghai)Wait.TheAsianpartoftheRussianEmpireoccupies11provinces,17districtsandoneautonomousregion(SakhalinIsland).InadditiontoRussia,thereare8otherprovincesinFinlandand10provincesinPoland.TheEuropeanpartoftheRussianEmpirehas59provincesandonedistrict(theDonregion).TheMinisterofWarhasjurisdictionovertheDonregion;theotherprovinceshavetheirowngovernorstomanagethelocalgovernment.

Inaddition,thereisusuallyasecretary-generalabovethegovernorsofseveralprovinces,andthesecretary-generalgenerallyhastheprivilegeofmobilizingtroopswithinhisjurisdiction.In1906,theRussianEmpirealreadyhadsecretary-generalsinFinland,Warsaw,Vilnius,Kiev,Moscow,andRiga.Thelargercities(St.Petersburg,Moscow,Odessa,Sevastopol,Kerch,Nikolaev,Rostov)alsohavetheirownmanagementsystemsindependentoftheprovinces;inthesecitiesThepoliceinspectorisequivalenttothegovernoroftheprovince.

Politics

Government

• Government

AccordingtotherecordsoftheEuropeanRoyalFamilyGenealogyYearbook,theRussianEmpireimplementedaPrussian-stylebourgeoisconstitutionalmonarchyin1910.ThisregimewasestablishedinOctober1905,anditwasatransitionalandself-containedregime.However,beforethisday,thepoweroftheRussiantsarwasauthoritarianandunlimited.

AftertheOctoberProclamationtoamendthelawandthebeginningoftheFirstReichDuma(April27,1906),theworddespotismwascarefullypreserved,butthepowerhasbeenturnedtoalimiteddegree.However,thiskindofregimehasnowaytobecomeameaningfulconstitutionbecauseitlacksparliamentaryunits.Butinfinitedictatorshiphasgivenaspaceforaself-limitingdictatorshipsystem.Whetheritwillbeapermanentdictatorshiporjustruleandactontheopinionsofthedictator,itwillonlyincreasetheconflictsbetweentheparties.So,atpresent,theRussiangovernmentsystemisbestdefinedasasystemoflimitedmonarchpowerundertheautocraticemperor.

• TheTsar

PetertheGreatrenamedhimselfEmperorin1721anddeclaredhimselfFortheemperorofallRussia.LaterrulerscontinuedtousethisnameuntiltheFebruaryRevolutionwasoverthrownin1917.

RussianmonarchsalwaysusedthetitleofCzarfrom1547to1721,butafterwardstheyalwaysusedthenameofEmperor,buttheywerestillcalledCzarsundertheChinesesemi-toneandsemi-meaningtranslation.

ThepoweroftheemperorwasrestrictedbytworegulationsbeforetheOctoberDeclaration,thepurposeofwhichwastoprotecttheexistingsystem.PopePaulIbelievedthatboththeemperorandhisspousemustbemembersoftheOrthodoxChurchandmustabidebythePaulineLaws.ButonOctober17,1905,thesituationchanged,andtheemperorvoluntarilyrestrictedhislegislativepower.HebelievesthatnoproposalcanbepassedintolawwithouttheconsentoftheImperialDuma(afreelyelectedNationalAssembly).Althoughalawrelatedtotheabove-mentionedmoralresponsibilityappearedonApril28,1906,andwasexpandedwiththeOrganicLaw,theemperorstillhadtherighttodissolvetheDuma,andhealsoexercisedthisright.

Cabinet

• Senate

Inordertoreformthecentralinstitutions,PeterIissuedanedictontheformationoftheSenate(Сенат)ontheeveofhisexpeditiontoTurkeyinFebruary1711.TheSenatereplacedtheGrandNobleDumaasafullysupervisedstateorganandthetsar’stooloftame.Theformationofanautocraticsystemisofgreatsignificance.

• ModernCabinet

AccordingtothelawfromOctober18,1905,TheSupremeCounciltosupporttheTsarwasestablished,andinthenameoftheheadofgovernment,theRussianPrimeMinisterwasestablished.TheRussiangovernmentconsistsofallitsgovernmentdepartmentsandtheirministers.Theministersarelistedbelow:JudgeoftheRoyalCourt;MinisterofForeignAffairs;MinisterofWar;CommanderoftheNavy;MinisterofEconomy;MinisterofIndustryandCommerce(foundedin1905);StateAffairsMinister(includingsecurity,medicalcare,reviewandpublishing,postandcommunications,foreignterritorialaffairs,andstatistics);MinisterofAgriculture;MinisterofTransportation;MinisterofJustice;MinisterofEducation.

Parliament

• ImperialParliament

AccordingtoFebruary1906Thelawenactedonthe20th,theImperialParliamentandtheImperialDumamergedintothelegislativeupperhouse,andtheemperor’slegislativepowercanonlyfunctionnormallyincooperationwiththetwohousesfromthistimeon.

Theimperialassemblyhas196seats,98ofwhicharenominatedbytheemperor,andtheremaining98areelected,andtheprimeministerisalsooneofitsmembers.Regardingtheseelectedmembers,threeofthemarepriestsoftheGreekOrthodoxChurch,theotherthreearethewhitepriestsinchargeoftheparishorsecularoffice,theremaining18arenobles,6aremembersofuniversitiesorscientificinstitutes,and6PeoplecamefromtheChamberofCommerce,6peoplecamefromtheIndustrialBureau,18peoplecamefromagovernmentwithalocalself-governmentbureau,theremaining16peopledidnot,and6peoplecamefromPoland.However,whenthelegislaturecooperatedwiththeDuma,theorganization'sproposalswererarelyimplemented.

• Senate

TheRussianSenate(Правительствующийсенат,PravitelstvuyushchiSenat,iedirectingorgoverningsenateThemembersof)areallappointedbytheTsar.Anditshugefunctioniscomposedofthepositionsofitsseparatedepartments.Itisthehighestinstitutionwithvetopower;itistheaccountingdepartmentoftheempireandthehighestcourtforpoliticalprisoners;anditalsohasadepartmentthatfunctionssimilarlytotheBritishHeraldry.Italsohasjurisdictionoverdisputesinalltheempire’sinstitutions,especiallytheconflictsbetweencentralrepresentativesandlocalelectedinstitutions.Finally,italsopromulgatedanewlaw,atheoreticalfunctionthatgaveitthesamepowerastheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates:refusingtoimplementmeasuresthatcontradictthebasiclaw.

• HouseofCommons

ImperialDumaorImperialDuma(DumaEmpire)Thelowerhouse,whichformstheRussianparliament,hasatotalof442seatsandhasextremelycomplicatedelectionmethods.Thejobofthesemembersistowinthesupportoftheoverwhelmingmajorityofthewealthypeople,especiallythelandlordclass,andtospeakonbehalfoftheRussianpeople.EveryprovinceexceptCentralAsiawillnominateseveralmembers,andmostofthemcomefrombigcities.However,thisdoesnotmeanthattheycanbecomeofficialparliamentarians.Theymustpassarunoffelectionbythepeasants,citizensandlandlordclassbeforetheycanformallyserve.However,whenthedelegationispresentonbehalfoftheweakerpropertyowners,thewealthypropertyownerswillgotothebattleinperson.Citizens(metropolitans)aredividedintotwocategoriesbasedontaxablepropertyandareselectedasmembersoftheprovincialdelegation,whilefarmersareselectedasmembersoftheprovincialdelegation.Itisrepresentedbythedelegationofthecanton.Theworkingclassistreatedinaspecialway.Ifeachfactorydoesnotemploy50employees,oneormorerepresentativeswillbeelectedtoparticipateinthedelegation.

Inthedelegation,theyconductedasecretmajorityelection,andthewinnercanrepresentittoparticipateintheDumaBritishParliament.Sincethesepeoplehaveformedconservativeforces(theHouseofCommonsandcitizens),thereformersmusthavetherighttoelectonepersonfromalllevelsofgovernmenttoparticipateinthedelegation.SoiftheDumahassomeradicals,itisbecausetheyhavespecialfranchisesinsevenmajorcities,namelySt.Petersburg,Moscow,Kiev,Odessa,Riga,andWarsawandLodzinPoland.However,thelocalcouncildirectlyelectsthemembersoftheDuma,althoughtheirelectionsaredifferentiatedaccordingtotaxableassets,andthiswillgivethewealthypeoplesomeadvantagesandelectthesamenumberofrepresentatives.

TheChurch

TheMostHolySynod(foundedin1721)isthehighestgovernmentagencyoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch.Thisisapresidedoverbyasecularprosecutor,representingtheTsar,aswellasthethreemajorcitiesofMoscow,St.Petersburg,Kiev,andthearchbishopsofGeorgia.Therearealsobishopswhotaketurns.

Law

In1767,Ekaterinapersonallywrotethe"Edict"fortheCodexCommittee.ShecitedtheideasofalargenumberofEnlightenmentthinkers.The"Edict"isfullof"Vocabularysuchas"freedom","equality","democracy"isagreatpracticeofYekaterina'simplementationofherdemocraticideasintothelaw.Itreflectsthequeen'sdeterminationtopromotedemocracyinRussiaintheearlydaysofherruling.

Nationalsymbol

• Nationalflag

PetertheGreatascendedthethronein1721Later,theflagoftheRussianEmpirewastheEmperor’sprivateroyalflagoftheRomanovfamilyforalongtime-ablackdouble-headedeaglewithagoldbackground.Attheendofthe19thcentury,NicholasIIchangedtheflagtothecurrentstyle.Theflagisahorizontalrectanglewitharatiooflengthtowidthofabout3:2.Theflagsurfaceiscomposedofthreeparallelandequalhorizontalrectanglesconnectedtogether,whicharewhite,blue,andredfromtoptobottom.

ThevastterritoryoftheRussianEmpirespansthreeclimaticzones,namelythefrigidzone,subfrigidzoneandtemperatezone,andisconnectedinparallelbythree-colorhorizontalrectangles,showingthischaracteristicofRussia’sgeographicallocation.Whiterepresentsthesnowynaturallandscapeofthefrigidzonethroughouttheyear;bluerepresentsthesub-frigidclimatezone,butalsosymbolizesRussia’srichundergroundmineraldeposits,forests,waterpowerandothernaturalresources;redisthesymbolofthetemperatezoneandalsosymbolizesRussia’slonghistoryanditslonghistory.Thecontributionofhumancivilization.Thewhite,blue,andredflagscomefromthered,white,andblueflagsusedduringthereignofPetertheGreatin1697.Thered,white,andbluecolorsarecalledPan-Slaviccolors.AfterthevictoryoftheOctoberRevolutionin1917,thetricolorflagwascancelled.

FlagsoftheempireofRussia

• NationalEmblem

DuringtheprocessoftheEastRomanEmpire'sdemise,Russiaintroducedthedouble-headedeagleintoitsnationalemblem.AftertheGrandDukeIvanIIIofMoscowmarriedPrincessSophiaPaleorogoftheByzantineEmpirein1473,heputthedouble-headedeagleontheRussiannationalemblemtoshowthatMoscowwasthethirdRome.

Theoriginofthedouble-headedeaglecanbetracedbacktothe15thcenturyAD.Thedouble-headedeaglewasoriginallytheemblemofConstantineIoftheByzantineEmpire.TheByzantineEmpireoncestraddledthejunctionofthetwocontinentsofEuropeandAsia.ItlookedatthesoutheasternpartofEuropeinthewestononeendandthewesternpartofAsiaintheeastontheother.Itsymbolizedtheunityofthetwocontinentsandtheunityofvariousethnicgroups.In1497,thedouble-headedeaglefirstappearedonRussia'sGreatSealasanationalemblemuntil1918.

Technology

• Railway

Railwayplanningafter1860Andconstructionhadaprofoundimpactontheeconomy,cultureandlifeoftheRussianEmpire.Thecentralgovernmentandthenobleclassbasicallymonopolizedthedecision-making,butthelocalclanclassprovideddemandforrailwayconstruction.Localnobles,businessmen,andentrepreneursimaginedthefuture"fromtheplacetotheempire",soughttheirowninterests,andoftencompetedwithothercities,thuscontributingtotheeconomyoftheempire.

TheRussianarmybuilttwomainrailwaysinCentralAsiainthe1880s:theCaucasusRailway,connectingBatumiontheBlackSeacoastandBakuontheCaspianSea;theOuterCaspianRailway,fromKlassontheCaspianSeacoast.FromNovotsktoBukhara,SamarkandandTashkent.Thetworailwaysservedthebusinessandstrategicneedsoftheempire,whilefacilitatingpopulationmobility.

Nationalities

Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,thereweremorethan200nationalitiesinRussia,using146languages​​anddialects.Butthemainpartofthecountry'sresidents(nearly80%)iscomposedoffiveethnicgroups:GreatRussians,Ukrainians,Belarusians,Poles,andJews.GreatRussiansaccountedfor443%(55.7millionpeople)ofthecountry’spopulation;Ukrainians(orLittleRussians)accountedfor178%(22.4million)andBelarusiansaccountedfor47%(5.9million).ThesethreeRussians(1917)Beforetherevolution,theterm“all-Russian”includedthepopulationofthethreemainEastSlavicpeoples—Russians,Ukrainians,andBelarusians—whichtogetheraccountedfor668%ofthecountry'stotalpopulation.

Society

RussiansintheRussianEmpirearedividedintofourclasses:nobility,merchant,Cossackandpeasant.EthnicminoritiessuchasCaucasiansandTatarsarecalledforeigners.AmongRussians,816%arefarmers,93%arebusinessmen,62%aresoldiers,andonly09%arenobles(06%)andclergy(03%).Amongthemorethan88millionpeasants,morethanhalfareserfs,andtherestarepeasantswhoareconfinedtotheland(thevastmajority)andfreepeasants(aminority).

Russianserfdomwasfoundedinthe16thcenturyandbecamealegalprovisioninthemid-17thcentury(1647).Afterthereformin1861,theRussianEmpireabolishedserfdom.

Thepeasantswhoturnedfromserfshavebeenallocatedarableland.Buttheselandswereonlyallocatedtotheruralcommunes,anorganizationthatmanagestheownershipandtaxesofthesearableland.Ifyouwanttoearnestlyownarableland,farmersneedtopaya"ransom"withataxrate.Atthattime,farmerswhodidnothavelandhadtodopart-timejobsforotherstoearnmoneyfor"redemption"oftheland.However,afterpayingthemoneytotheTsar,thenewpeasantsalsoofficiallybecamepeasants,withoutanyrestrictionfromthelandlord.Butthemoneywasveryhigh.Becausetheczarfirstpaidthelandlordtheransom,thepeasantsdirectlyreturnedthemoneytotheczar.Thelatterrequiredanannualinterestrateof6%andapaymentperiodof49years.Inaddition,thereasonforeconomiccompensationtolandlordswasnottheland,butthelossofserfswhoweresupposedtoworkforthem.Notonlythat,butmanylandlordsarealsothinkingabouthowtoreducethepitifullandthatserfsontheirownlandcanget,suchasdeprivingthemofwhattheyneedmost:thepasturesaroundtheserfs'huts.Theresultisthatfreelancefarmersstillneedtoworkfortheirpreviousownerstorepaythecostofredemptionoftheland.

Religion

ThestatereligionoftheRussianEmpireistheOrthodoxChurch,andtheTsarisitsleader.Atthesametime,itretainsthetitleofSupremeProtector.AlthoughtheTsarwasabletoappointandretire,hecouldnotmodifythedogmaandthecontenttaughtbythechurch.TheleadingorganoftheOrthodoxChurchinthereligioussenseisthemostsacredconferenceofbishops,whichenjoysgreatpowerinreligiousmatters.Intheory,allreligiousbeliefsarefree,buttherearecertainrestrictionsforJews.

Ancientmonarchs

Ancientczars

serialnumber	ChineseFirstname	Timeinposition	Remarks
1	IvanIV	1547—1584	IvantheTerrible
2	Fedor·Ivanovich	1584-1598	FyodorI(bellringer) p>
3	BorisGodonov	1598—1605	blank
4	FyodorGodonov	1605(58days)	FyodorII
5	PseudoDimitLiYishi	1605--1606	blank
6	VasilyIV	1606-1610	blank
7	Mikhail·FeodorovichRomanov	1613-1645	MikhailI
8	AlexeiI	1645—1676	blank
9	FedorAlekseyevich	1676—1682	FedorIII
10	IvanV	1682--1689Year	blank
11	PeterI	1689-1721	blank

RussianTsarsofSuccessiveDynasties

SuccessiveEmperors

1721—1725PeterI(theGreat)

1725—1727CatherineNaI(female)

1727—1730PeterII

1730—1740AnnaI(female)

1740—1741FanVI(YoungEmperor)

1741—1762ElizabethI(female)

1762—1762PeterIII

1762—1796CatherineII(theGreat)(female)

1796—1801PaulI

1801—1825AlexanderI(HolyKing)

1825—1855NicholasI

1855—1881AlexanderII(Liberator)

1881—1894AlexanderIII(Peacemaker)

1894-1917NicholasII(martyr)

EmperorsoftheRussianEmpire

TitleofEmperor

Until1907,thefulltitleofEmperorNicholasIIoftheRussianEmpirewascalled:CarriagebyHeaven,GodcanonizedNicholasasEmperorofAllRussia;Moscow,Kiev,andVladimir,TheczarsanddictatorsofNovgorod;theKazanczar,theAstrakhanczar,thePolishczar,theSiberianczar,Tavlida(Crimea)andXeniso(SouthernCrimea))Tsar,CzarofGeorgia;LordofPskov;GrandDukeofSmolensk,GrandDukeofLithuania,GrandDukeofLivonia(WestUkraine),GrandDukeofPodoria(CentralUkraine),GrandDukeofFinland;PrinceofEstonia,LivoniaPrince,PrinceofCourlandandSemigalia(Latvia),PrinceSamogitia(EastLithuania),PrinceBialystok,PrinceKarelia,PrinceTver,PrinceUgra,PrincePerm,PrinceVratka,PrincesofBulgariaandotherterritories;NizhnyNovgorod,Chernigov,Ryazan,Polotsk,Rostov,Yaroslavl,Belozhersk,Udor,Obdol,Kandia,LordsandprincesofVitebsk,Mstislavandallnorthernregions;LordsandmonarchsofallprovincesofIvriya(SouthGeorgia),Katyria(EasternGeorgia),KabardaandArmenia;ChelThelordsoftheKirksandthemountainCaucasians;theTurkestanlords;theheirtotheNorwegianthrone,Schleswig-Holstein,Stallmanin,DietmarshenandtheDukeofOldenburg,etc.