Federal Republic of Germany

Introduction

TheFederalRepublicofGermany(3photos)

TheFederalRepublicofGermanyislocatedincentralEurope,withtheGermanDemocraticRepublicandtheCzechRepublictotheeast,andAustriaandSwitzerlandtothesouthItisborderedbytheNetherlands,Belgium,Luxembourg,andFrancetothewest,Denmarktothenorth,andtheNorthSeaandtheBalticSea.ItisthecountrywiththelargestnumberofneighboringcountriesinEurope.Theareaisabout357,000squarekilometers.Theterrainislowinthenorthandhighinthesouth.Itcanbedividedintofourterrainareas:theNorthGermanPlain,withanaverageelevationoflessthan100meters;theMid-Germanmountainregion,whichiscomposedofhighlandblocksthattrendfromeasttowest;Thewallsaresteep;theBavarianPlateauandAlpsinthesouth,

betweenthemainpeakoftheBayernAlps,Zugspitze,is2963metersabovesealevel,thehighestpeakinthecountry.ThemainriversaretheRhine(865kilometersthroughtheterritory),theElbe,theWeser,theOder,andtheDanube.LargerlakesincludeLakeConstance,LakeChiem,LakeAmor,andLakeLitz.Themaritimeclimateinthenorthwestismorepronounced,andtheclimateintheeastandsouthisgraduallytransitioningtoacontinentalclimate.Theaveragetemperatureisbetween14～19℃inJulyand－5～1℃inJanuary.Theannualprecipitationis500-1000mm,andthemountainousareaisevenmore.SinceJanuary1,1995,accordingtothe1982InternationalLawoftheSeaAgreement,Germany’sterritorialwatersintheNorthSeaandtheEastChinaSeahaveincreasedfrom3nauticalmilesto12nauticalmiles(about22kilometers),andtheirareashaveincreasedby4,100and1,700squarekilometersrespectively.

ThecapitaloftheFederalRepublicofGermanyisBonn.AfterthereunificationofthetwoGermanys,thecapitalwasmovedfromBonntoBerlin.Berlinisalsoafederalstate.LocatedinthelowlandsofNorthGermanyonthebanksoftheHavelandSpree,therearenumerouslakes.TheterrainofBerlinvariesfrom30metersto115metersabovesealevel.Itcoversanareaof​​882squarekilometers.Thepopulationis3.42million.TherearemanyuniversitiesinBerlin,suchastheHumboldtUniversityestablishedin1809-1810,theFreeUniversityestablishedin1948,andtheTechnicalUniversityofBerlin.Berlin'sdramaschoolisalsoveryfamous.

History

Prehistoricperiod

About700,000yearsago,therewerehumantracesinGermany.TheearlyhistoryoftheGermanslacksdocumentation,soitisnotveryclear.Aroundthe1stcenturyBC,manyGermanictribessettledintheDanubeandRhinevalleys.DuetotheexpansionoftheRomanEmpireintheGermanregion,thesetribescontinuedtoclashwiththeRomanEmpire.

In9AD,theGermansdefeatedtheimposingRomanarmyintheBattleoftheTeutoburgForest.TheRomanslost3legionsinthisbattle.TheRomanEmpireneverinvadedthefieldsincethen.TheGermanregionnorthoftheRhineandDanubebecameindependent.In376AD,theGermanswereattackedbytheHunsandbegantomigratetotheRomanEmpire.Beginningin407,aseriesofshort-livedkingdomswereestablishedinpartsoftoday'sFranceandSpain.In476AD,theGermanicunitedpartoftheRomanstooverthrowtheWesternRomanEmpire.

TheperiodofthefoundingofGermany

TheFrankishKingdom(4photos)

Attheendofthe5thcentury,theestablishmentoftheFrankishKingdomthatlastedforseveralcenturies,includingMoThegloriousperiodoftheLowendynastyandtheCarolingiandynasty.UnderthereignofCharlemagne,thekingdomhasalmostexpandedtomostoftoday'sFranceandGermany,knownastheCharlemagneEmpire.Duetothelackofculturalandeconomictiesbetweenvariousareasintheterritory,thefeudalseparatistforceswerestrong,andthekingdomfellintoameleeafterthedeathofCharlemagne.

In843AD,theterritoryoftheFrankishStatewasdividedintothreepartsinaccordancewiththeTreatyofVerdun.Thewesternpart,theKingdomofWestFranconiaontheleftbankoftheRhine,becamethefoundationoflaterFrance;andtheeasternpartwastheGerman-speakingEastontherightbankoftheRhine.TheFrankishkingdombecamethefoundationofthelaterGermankingdom,thefutureHolyRomanEmpire,andtheembryonicformoftoday'sGermany;themiddlepartbecametherootofthelaterFrench-Germanstruggle.

In919AD,HenryI,DukeofSaxony,waselectedkingoftheEastFranconianKingdom,establishedtheSaxonDynasty,andofficiallyfoundedtheKingdomofGermany.TheterritoryoftheSaxonDynastywasroughlylocatedinpresent-dayHolland,westernGermany,SwitzerlandandAustria.ThisisthebeginningofGermanhistoryinthestrictsense.

TheHolyRomanEmpire

In962AD,KingOttoIoftheSaxonDynastywascrownedemperorbyPopeJohnXIIinRome,andhereignedin973andbecameRome.TheguardianandemperorandsupremeruleroftheRomanCatholicworld.In1157,thisempirereceivedthetitleof"HolyEmpire".In1254,theempirefirstbegantousethetitle"HolyRomanEmpire",anditwasusedasanofficialnameuntil1806.

TheHolyRomanEmpire(5photos)

DuringtheFranconianrule(1024-1125),northernItalyandBurgundyjoinedtheHolyRomanEmpire,Butthedisputeoverthebishop'snominationrightsweakenedtheemperor'spower.DuringthereignoftheHohenstaufendynasty(1138-1254),theimperialpowerfurtherexpandedtotheareaswheretheSlavslived.ThecitiesandtownsinnorthernGermanyprosperedbecauseoftheHanseaticLeague.

In1517,MartinLutherwrotethe"Ninety-fiveTheses"whichquestionedtheRomanCatholicChurch,whichtriggeredthereligiousreform.KarlIVoftheHabsburgfamilyascendedthethronein1519.HenotonlywantedtofighttheTurkishOttomanEmpire,butwasalsoinvolvedinalongwaragainstFranceandthePope.Hispositionintheempirewasweakenedandhewasunabletostopthereligiousreform.Inthe14thcentury,farmersbrokeoutbecauseoftheirhardships.From1524to1526duringtheReformation,itevendevelopedintotheGermanPeasantWar.In1525,undertheleadershipofMunzer,thelandlordsofFrankenhauswereabolished.

SinceGermanywasthemainbattlefieldoftheThirtyYears’Warfrom1618to1648,itseconomywasgreatlydestroyed,andafterthewar,thevassalsweredividedintoterritories,anditsinternaldivisionbecameirreversible,indirectlyMaketheHolyRomanEmpireexistinnameonly.TheFrenchruledbyRichelieuwonAlsaceandLorraineinthiswar,layinghiddendangersforthefuturewarbetweenGermanyandFrance.Beginningin1740,thewarbetweentheHabsburgsofAustriaandtheKingdomofPrussiaoccupiedGermanhistoryinthe18thcentury.

OnMay18,1804,Napoleoncametopower.TheHolyRomanEmperorFranzIIunitedBritain,Russia,SwedenandNaplestoformthethirdanti-Frenchalliance.In1805,theAlliedforcesinvadedBavaria,theallyofFrance,andanotherAlliedarmyattackedNapoleon’scontrolofItaly,butintheendtheFrenchnotonlydefendedBavaria,butalsoinvadedMoraviaintheHolyRomanEmpire,andatthesametimedrovetheAlliedforcesoutofItaly.AnddefeatedRussianreinforcementsinPrussia.OnJuly12,1806,underthecoercionandlureofNapoleon,theoriginal16memberstatesoftheHolyRomanEmpiresignedthe"RhineConfederationTreaty",separatedfromtheHolyRomanEmpire,andestablishedanewpoliticalunion,theRhineConfederation.EmperorFranzIIwasforcedtoabdicate,andtheHolyRomanEmpirewascompletelydisintegrated.

TheRiseofPrussia

OnJanuary18,1701,theelectorofBrandenburg,FrederickIII,declaredwarontheFrenchBourbondynastyforsupportingtheHabsburgKingoftheHolyRomanEmpire,WascrownedasKingFrederickIofPrussiainKönigsberg.Sincethen,Prussiahasofficiallyexistedasakingdom.

AftertheFrenchRevolution,Prussiajoinedtheanti-Frenchalliance,butwasdefeatedbytheFrencharmyandwasforcedtoagreetoFrance'sannexationofPrussianterritorywestoftheRhinein1795.KingFrederickWilliamIIIofPrussia(ascendedthethronein1797)joinedtheAnti-FrenchWaragaininOctober1806.HewasdefeatedbyNapoleoninJenaandwasforcedtofleetoKönigsberg.

In1807,PrussiaandFranceconcludedapeacetreatyinTilsitontheNemanRiver.Prussiaceded160,000squarekilometersofland,includingmostoftheterritoryofPolandandalltheterritorywestoftheElbe.Andindemnify130millionfrancs.

Inthewinterof1812,Napoleon’sarmyretreatedfromRussia.PrussiarejoinedtheAnti-FrenchAlliancethefollowingyearanddeclaredwaronFranceonMarch17,1813.OnOctober24,thethreecountriesofPrussia,Austria,andRussiaThecoalitiondefeatedtheFrenchinLeipzigunderthecommandofBlücherandGneisenau.Thestatesinthealliancethatlosttheirprotectionquicklyturnedtotheanti-Frenchalliancefortheirowninterests.OnOctober31,theallianceofficiallydisintegrated.In1815thePrussianarmydefeatedtheFrencharmyagainatWaterloo.AccordingtotheterritorialadjustmentoftheViennaConference,thePrussianterritoryextendedfromtheMermelRivertotheRhineRiver,becomingtheonlypowerintheGermanConfederationwhereGerman-speakingresidentsdominated,andoneoftheEuropeanpowers.

Germanunification

TheFebruaryRevolutioninParisin1848promotedtheMarchRevolutionintheGermancity-states.TheEmperorofPrussia,FrederickWilliamIV,underpressurefromthepeople,amendedtheconstitutionandrecognizedthepeople'sfreedomofassemblyandspeech.Theliberalmovementwastemporarilysubdued.

In1861,FrederickWilliamIVdiedandWilliamIascendedthethrone.In1862,heclashedwithCongressduetothebudgetandtaxissuesrequiredformilitaryreform.Heoriginallyplannedtoabdicate,buthewastakenbackontheadviceoftheformerambassadortoFrance,Bismarck.Bismarckexpressedhissupportformilitaryreforms,andsaidthatifheisappointedasprimeminister,hewilldowhateverittakestoforcethereformofthearmyandthenewmilitaryservicesystem.

OnSeptember22,1862,WilliamIappointedBismarckasprimeminister.Bismarckbecameprimeminister,whichmarkedthebeginningofGermanreunification.In1864,PrussiadefeatedDenmarkandreclaimedmanyterritoriesinthenorthneartheDanishborder.In1866,PrussiadefeatedAustria,forcingAustriaandHungarytoformtheAustro-HungarianEmpire;andmergedseveralstatestoformtheNorthGermanConfederation.In1870,theFranco-PrussianWarbrokeout,andseveralsouthernGermanstateswereseparatedfromFrenchcontrol.By1871,GermanyannouncedthecompletionofunificationandtheestablishmentoftheGermanEmpire,alsoknownasthe"SecondGermanEmpire."

Inearly1884,theGermanEmpirebegantoestablishcoloniesoutsideEurope.AftertheBerlinConference,theGermanEmpireacquiredalotoflandinAfrica,includingGermanEastAfrica,GermanSouth-WestAfrica,Togo,andCameroon.ThepartitionofAfricaintensifiedthecontradictionsbetweenthegreatpowersandledtotheoutbreakoftheFirstWorldWar.

TheWeimarRepublic

OnJune28,1914,PrinceFranzFerdinandoftheAustro-HungarianEmpirewasassassinatedandbecamethedirectfusefortheoutbreakofWorldWarI.AsamemberoftheAlliedPowersdefeatedbytheAlliedPowers,theGermanEmpiresufferedhugelosses.InNovember1918,theGermanRevolutionbrokeout,WilhelmIIwasforcedtoabdicate,andtheWeimarRepublicwasestablished.OnNovember11,theGermanEmpiresurrenderedandtheFirstWorldWarended.InJune1919,theGermanEmpirewasforcedtosignthePeaceofVersailles.Thisnegotiationisdifferentfrompreviouspost-warpeacetalksinthattheGermanEmpireasadefeatedcountrywasexcluded.ThetreatywasconsideredtooharshandhumiliatedGermany,whichpromotedtheriseofNazism.

TheWeimarRepublicafterthewarwasanefforttoestablishapeaceful,freeanddemocraticregimeonGermansoil.Inthefirstfewyears,theWeimarRepublichadtodealwiththerebellionlaunchedbytheleftandtherightandthesevereinflationof1923.Then,asGermany'srelationswiththewartimeenemiesgraduallyeasedandthedebtcompensationwasrelaxed,thesituationimprovedsomewhat.Thealliesrestoredorderandprosperitytoacertainextent,thankstothePrimeMinisterandMinisterofForeignAffairsGustavStresemann.

ThisprosperitycontinueduntiltheGreatDepressionin1930.Sincethen,therecessionoftheeconomy,coupledwiththememoryofultra-fastinflationin1923andthenationalistoppositiontriggeredbytheharshtermsoftheVersaillesTreaty,ruinedtheWeimargovernmentfrombothinsideandoutside.AdolfHitlerandhisNationalSocialistWorkersParty(NSDAP,Naziforshort)tookadvantageofthisrealityandtheever-increasingunemploymentrate.TheNazisconstantlyemphasizednationalandethnicissuesandpromisedtolettheunemployedregaintheirjobs.TheyattributedmanyoftheproblemsinGermanytotheso-calledJewishconspiracy,andevenclaimedthatthefailureoftheFirstWorldWarwascausedbyinternalcollusion..

NaziGermany

In1929,aftertheoutbreakoftheworldeconomiccrisis,thepoliticalsituationintheWeimarRepublicbegantoturntofascism.TheNaziParty,ledbyHitler,tookcontrolofGermanyonJanuary30,1933.

AfterHitlercametopower,hebegantoimplementwhiteterrorinternallyandbrutallysuppressdissidentelements.Throughthestormtroopers,theSS,andtheGestapo,aswellasthelaborcampsandconcentrationcampsalloverthecountry,thefascistdictatorshipwasimplemented.Hitlercametopowerbyadvocatingstrongpopulism.Afterhecametopower,hebeganacrazyracialoppressionofJews.OnMarch16,1935,HitlerbrokethroughtheblockadeoftheTreatyofVersailles,announcedtheimplementationofuniversalcompulsorymilitaryservice,establishedanarmyof500,000,andannouncedtheimplementationofthe"four-yearplan"hostedbyGoeringthefollowingyear.TheindustrialdevelopmentspeedexceededthatofWesterncountries..OnMarch7,1936,HitlerdrovetheGermanforcesintotheRhineDemilitarizedZone,andinJuly,hetookpartintheSpanishCivilWar.

OnNovember25,GermanyandJapanconcludedthe"Anti-CommunistInternationalConvention."OnMay22,1939,GermanyandItalyenteredintoasteelallianceinBerlin.Sofar,thethreecountriesformallyformedanalliance,knownastheAxisPowers.InMarch1938,GermanyannexedAustria.InSeptember,attheMunichConference,Hitlerstatedthat“aftertheacquisitionoftheSudetaiarea,Germanywillnolongerhaveterritorialclaims”andsignedthe“MunichAgreement”drivenbytheappeasementpolicyofBritainandFrance.InOctober,GermanybrokeitscontractandoccupiedCzechoslovakia.

OnSeptember1,1939,GermanylaunchedablitzkriegagainstPoland.Twodayslater,FranceandBritaindeclaredwaronGermany,andWorldWarIIbrokeout.GermanysooncontrolledmostofEuropedirectlyorindirectly.In1941,GermanybegantheHolocaust,killingabout6millionJews,about10millionSlavsandGypsies,andabout250,000Germandisabledpeopleinanorganizedmanner.

OnJune22,1941,GermanybegantoattacktheSovietUnion.Inthewinterof1942,theBattleofStalingradbeganandtheGermandefeatbecameaturningpointintheSecondWorldWar.

OnJune6,1944,theUnitedStatesandBritainlandedinNormandy,France.OnMay8,1945,Germanyannounceditsunconditionalsurrender.

Divisionandreunification

AftertheendofWorldWarII,accordingtotheYaltaAgreement,theSovietUnion,theUnitedStates,BritainandFranceoccupiedGermanyinadistrict,andBerlinwasaspecialunitunderthejointmanagementofthefourcountries.InMay1949,theoccupiedterritoriesoftheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,andFrancemergedtoformtheFederalRepublicofGermany.InOctoberofthesameyear,theoccupiedterritoriesoftheSovietUnionannouncedtheestablishmentoftheGermanDemocraticRepublic,andGermanysplitintotwocountries.In1961,inordertopreventEastGermansfromfleeingtoWestGermany,GDRbuilttheBerlinWallonitsownsideoftheborderbetweenEastandWestBerlinandcutofftrafficbetweenWestGermanyandWestBerlin.TheColdWarreacheditspeak.TheUnitedStatessupportedWestBerlinbyairdroppedmaterials,whichisanairbridge.

TheeconomyoftheFederalRepublicofGermanydevelopedrapidlyafterthewar.Inthe1970s,therewasan"economicmiracle"inGermany.Beforereunification,theFederalRepublicofGermanyhadbecomethefourthlargestcountryintheworldeconomyandthethirdlargesttradecountry.TheGDRhasthehealthiestandfastesteconomicdevelopmentamongEasternEuropeancountries.Beforereunification,EasternandWesternGermanywaslistedasoneoftheworld'stopteneconomiesbytheWorldBank.DuetovariousfactorssuchasthedrasticchangesinEasternEurope,EastGermanyorderedtheopeningoftheBerlinWallonNovember9,1989,andonOctober3,1990,thetwoGermanyswerereunified.

GeographicalLocation

WestGermanyislocatedincentralEurope,borderedbytheDemocraticRepublicofGermanyandCzechoslovakiatotheeast,AustriaandSwitzerlandtothesouth,theNetherlands,Belgium,Luxembourg,Francetothewest,andDenmarktothenorth.BorderingtheNorthSeaandtheBalticSea,itisthecountrywiththemostneighborsinEurope.

Naturalresources

WestGermanyisrelativelypoorinnaturalresources.Inadditiontorichreservesofhardcoal,ligniteandsalt,itreliesheavilyonimportsintermsofrawmaterialsupplyandenergy.2\3primaryenergyneedstobeimported.Thenaturalgasreservesareabout382billioncubicmeters,whichcanmeetaquarterofthedomesticdemand.Hardcoalandligniteareabundant;theprovenreservesofothermineraldepositsare:about13billiontonsofpotash,1.6billiontonsofironore,50milliontonsofoil,andabout500billioncubicmetersofnaturalgas.Thereareasmallamountofuraniumminesinthesoutheast.TheGermanforestcoversanareaof​​10.766millionhectares,accountingforabout30%ofthecountry'sarea.Thewaterareais860,000hectares,accountingfor2.4%ofthecountry'sarea.

Administrativedivisions

Germany'sadministrativeregionsaredividedintothreelevels:federal,state,andmunicipality.Thereare16statesand12,229municipalitiesintotal.Thenamesofthestatesare:Baden-Württemberg,Bavaria,Berlin,Brandenburg,Bremen,Hamburg,Hesse,Mecklenburg-Vorpommern,

LowerSaxony,NorthRhine-Westphalia,Rhineland-Palatinate,Saarland,Saxony,Saxony-Anhalt,Schleswig-HolsteinAndThuringia.Amongthem,Berlin,BremenandHamburgarecitiesandstates.

Nationalsymbol

Nationalflag

TheflagofWestGermanyisrectangularwitharatiooflengthtowidthof5:3.Fromtoptobottom,itisformedbyconnectingthreeparallelandequalhorizontalrectanglesofblack,red,andgold.Therearedifferentopinionsontheoriginofthetricolorflag.ItcanbetracedbacktotheancientRomanEmpireinthefirstcenturyAD.LaterintheGermanPeasantWarinthe16thcenturyandtheGermanbourgeoisdemocraticrevolutioninthe17thcentury,thetricolorflagrepresentingtherepublicwasalsoflyingontheGermanland..

AfterthefalloftheGermanEmpirein1918,theWeimarRepublicalsoadoptedthethreecolorsofblack,redandgoldasitsnationalflag.InSeptember1949,theFederalRepublicofGermanywasestablished,stillusingthetricolorflagfromtheWeimarRepublic;theGermanDemocraticRepublicwasestablishedinOctoberofthesameyearalsousingthetricolorflag,butinthecenteroftheflagwasaddedthenationalemblemincludinghammers,gauges,wheatears,etc.Patterntoshowthedifference.OnOctober3,1990,thereunifiedGermanystillusedtheflagoftheFederalRepublicofGermany.Thetricolornationalflagcanbehungatairports,hotels,banquetsandotheroccasions.Federalgovernmentagenciesandembassiesabroadhangnationalflagswithblackeaglepatterns.

NationalEmblem

TheemblemofWestGermanyhasagoldenshieldasabackground.Onthebackgroundisablackeagle.Thebeakandclawsoftheeaglearered.Accordingtotextualresearch,theoriginofthiseaglepatterncanbetracedbacktotheHohenzollernfamilywhoruledPrussiainthe12thcenturyandlaterbecametheGermanroyalfamily.

Sinceancienttimes,theGermans'respectfortheeaglehasbeensincereanddeep.AsearlyasinancientRome,theeaglewasregardedasasymbolofthesupremeGod,anditprotectedthedescendantsandbelieversofGodfromharm.Godcompareshimselftoaneagle,andwhoeverbelievesinitcanspreaditswingsandflyhighlikeaneagle,constantlygainingnewvitality.Atthesametime,itisalsoabirdofthesun,itssharpeyescanwithstandthesun'srays.Intheeraoffeudaldynasties,theeaglewasasymbolofimperialpower,andtheemperorshopedtomakethethroneforever.Theeagleinthepictureappearedasearlyastheninthcentury.ItissaidthatthepatternwasintroducedtoGermanybythearmyofFrankishKingCharlesIfromtheRomanEmpire.

NationalAnthem

Thethirdparagraphof"SongofGermany",thelyricsareAugustHeinlichandHoffmanvonFallesreben(1798Year-1874)Writtenin1841,thetuneadoptsthemelodyofthesong"GodBlessEmperorFranz"composedby"FatherofSymphony"FranzJosephHaydn(1732-1809).

In1922,ontheoccasionofthethirdanniversaryoftheestablishmentoftheWeimarRepublic,FriedrichAlbert,thefirstpresidentoftheRepublic,upgradedthe"SongofGermany"tothenationalanthem.In1952,inacommunicationbetweenFederalPresidentHawesandFederalChancellorAdenauer,thesongwasagainrecognizedasthenationalanthem.FederalPresidentWeizseckandFederalChancellorKohlconfirmedthetraditionalsignificanceofthe"GermanSong"toaunifiedGermanyintheircorrespondenceinAugust1991.

NationalBird

Thewhitestork(scientificname:Ciconiaciconia)isalargewadingbirdofthegenusStorkinthestorkfamily.InEurope,thewhitestorkhasbeenconsidereda"birdthatbringshappiness"sinceancienttimes,asymbolofauspiciousness,andan"angel"sentbyGodtovisitpeoplewhomakegoodluck.Afterthewhitestorkwasselectedasthenationalbird,manyGermanfamiliesspeciallybuiltplatformsonthechimneysforthemtobuildnests.

Politics

Constitution

TheBasicLawoftheFederalRepublicofGermanyenteredintoforceonMay23,1949.TheBasicLawdefinesfivebasicsystemsinGermany:republic,democracy,federalism,legalstate,andsocialwelfaresystem.Majorrevisionsweremadein1956and1968.InAugust1990,the"TreatyofReunification"betweenGermanyandGermanymadeadaptiveamendmentstocertainprovisionsoftheBasicLaw,whichwillapplytoallofGermanyfromOctober3rd.

TheParliament

iscomposedoftheBundestagandtheBundesrat.MembersoftheBundestagareelecteddirectlybyvotersandproportionallydistributedbythepoliticalparties.Thetermofofficeis4years.Themostimportanttasksaretolegislate,electthePrimeMinisterandsupervisethegovernment.

TheFederalSenatehas69seats,composedofrepresentativesofthefederalstates,andeachstatehas3to6seatsinproportiontothepopulation.ThestatesparticipateinfederallegislationandadministrationandEUaffairsthroughtheBundestag.ThepresidentoftheSenateisappointedbythegovernorsofthestatesinafixedorderforaone-yearterm.WhenthePresidentisunabletoexercisehispowersforsomereason,thePresidentoftheSenateshallactonhisbehalf.

Government

Cabinetsystem.UsuallythelargestpoliticalpartyintheBundestagtakestheleadinformingacabinet,anditsleaderiselectedasprimeministerbytheBundestag.ThePrimeMinisterisresponsibleforformulatingandimplementinginternalandexternalpolicies,andisdirectlyresponsibletotheParliament.

Judiciary

TheFederalConstitutionalCourtisoneoftheGermanconstitutionalinstitutions.ItismainlyresponsibleforinterpretingtheBasicLaw,supervisingtheimplementationoftheBasicLaw,andmakingarulingonwhetheritisunconstitutional.Thereare16judges,halfelectedbytheBundestagandhalfoftheBundesrat,appointedbythePresidentforatermof12years.ThepresidentandvicepresidentsareelectedbytheBundestagandtheBundesratinturn.

Inaddition,thereareFederalCourts(inchargeofcivilandcriminalcases),FederalAdministrativeCourt,FederalFinanceCourt,FederalLaborCourt,FederalSocialCourt,etc.Thefederalandstatecourtshavecorrespondingprosecutors'offices,buttheyarenotunderthejurisdictionofthecourtsanddonotinterferewiththetrialworkofthecourts.Theirtasksaremainlytoleadtheinvestigationofcriminalcasesandinitiatepublicprosecutions.Theprocuratorateisundertheleadershipofthefederalorstategovernment'sMinistryofJusticeandisrelativelyindependentintheexerciseofitspowers.TheFederalProsecutor'sOfficeiscomposedoftheFederalAttorneyGeneralandseveralfederalprosecutors.

Politicalparties

Germanyimplementsamulti-partysystem,mainlyincludingthefollowingpoliticalparties:

(1)TheGermanChristianDemocraticUnion(Christlich-DemokratischeUnionDeutschlands):abbreviatedasthefoundationDemocraticLeague.Themainrulingparty.EstablishedinJune1945.Hewasinpowerfrom1949to1969andfrom1982to1998.

(2)ChristianSocialUnion(Christlich-SozialeUnioninBayerne.V.):ReferredtoastheBaseSocialUnion.rulingparty.Establishedin1945.AccordingtotheagreementreachedwiththeCDU,thepartyonlydevelopsandorganizesactivitiesinBavaria,andformstheUnionPartyparliamentarygroupwiththeCDUintheBundestag.

(3)GermanSocialDemocraticParty(SozialdemokratischeParteiDeutschlands):referredtoastheSocialDemocraticParty.Foundedin1863,itisoneoftheearliestworkers'partiesintheworld.In1878,itwasdeclaredillegalbytheBismarckgovernmentandregaineditslegalstatusin1890.In1933,theSocialDemocraticPartywasbannedbytheNaziregimeandrebuiltafterthewar.InSeptember1990,theEastandWestGermanSocialDemocraticPartiesmerged.

(4)Union90/GreenParty(Bündnis90/DieGrünen):referredtoastheGreenParty.Oppositionparty.TheGreenPartyinWesternGermanywasestablishedinJanuary1980.InMay1993itmergedwiththeEasternUnion90/GreenParty.

(5)LiberalDemocraticParty(FreieDemokratischePartei):ReferredtoastheLiberalDemocraticParty.Oppositionparty.FoundedinDecember1948.

(6)TheCommunistPartyofGermany(DeutscheKommunistischePartei):Establishedin1968,formerlyknownastheCommunistPartyofGermany,whichwasbannedin1956.

Diplomacy

RelationswithEastGermany

Sincethefoundingofthecountry,WestGermanyhasputforwardthe"requestforseparaterepresentation"andrefusedtorecognizetheGermanDemocraticRepublic."Halsteinism"claimsthatifothercountriesotherthantheSovietUnionestablishdiplomaticrelationswiththeGDR,theFederalRepublicofGermanymayseverdiplomaticrelationswithit,aimingtoblocktheGDR'sinternationalactivityspaceandisolatetheGDR.

Inthe1960s,withtheconsolidationandimprovementofthestatusoftheGDR,"Halsteinism"constrainedtheinternationalactivityspaceoftheFederalRepublicofGermany.Asaresult,theFederalRepublicofGermanybegantoconsiderabandoning"Halsteinism."In1967,theFederalRepublicofGermanyestablisheddiplomaticrelationswiththeSocialistRepublicofRomania.Tothisend,itputforwardaso-calledtheoryofthe"birthdefects"ofthesocialistcountriesinEasternEurope(thatis,thesocialistcountriesinEasternEuropehavebeencountrieswiththesamesystemastheGDRsincetheirbirth,andtheyhavehaddiplomaticrelationswiththeGDRfromthebeginning.Therefore,theFederalRepublicofGermanycanestablishdiplomaticrelationswiththemregardlessoftheirdiplomaticrelationswiththeGDR),thusopeningthedoorfortheFederalRepublicofGermanytoestablishdiplomaticrelationswiththesocialistcountriesofEasternEuropeandestablishandexpanditsinfluenceandscopeofactivitiesinEasternEurope.

OnOctober28,1969,WillyBrandtmadeaclearproposaltotheGDRinhisfirstgovernmentstatementafterhebecameChancelloroftheFederalRepublicofGermany.Discriminationtalks.OnMarch19,1970,WillyBrandtandWillyStoff,chairmanoftheCouncilofMinistersoftheDemocraticRepublicofGermany,heldthefirstmeetingoftheheadsofgovernmentofthetwocountries.ThefirstmeetingwasheldinErfurtintheGDR.Althoughthetwomeetingsdidnotreachanysubstantiveagreement,themostimportantthingisthatthismeetinghassinceopenedthedoortoexchangesbetweentheleadersofthetwocountries.InDecember1972,theGDRandtheFederalRepublicofGermanysignedthe"BasicTreaty",andtherelationsbetweenthetwoGermanysreturnedtonormal.

Intheearly1980s,NATOpassedaresolutiononthedeploymentofmedium-rangemissilesinWesternEuropeancountries.InthecontextofthedeteriorationofEast-Westrelations,FederalChancellorHamSchmidttooktheinitiativetowritealettertoDemocracyGermanleaderErichHoneckerproposedthatthetwomeetwithoutmentioninganyprerequisites.InDecember1981,HamSchmidtandErichHoneckerheldtalksintheGDR.Althoughtheresultsofthetalkswerenotgreat,thetwosidesstillemphasizedinthetenseatmospherebetweentheEastandtheWestthatthenormalizationofrelationsbetweenthetwocountriesisanimportantfactorintherelaxationofEurope.BothsideshavespecialresponsibilityfordefendingpeaceinEuropeandensuringthatnowarwillbreakoutagainonGermanterritory.Theresponsibilityofthetwopartieswaswritteninthejointcommuniquéofbothparties.

Attheendof1980,whenEast-WestrelationsandGermanrelationswerestillintheshadowofthemedium-rangemissilecrisis,theFederalChancellorHelmutKohlinheritedHamSchmidt’sapproach.,InvitedErichHoneckertovisittheFederalRepublicofGermanyin1981.InSeptember1987,ErichHoneckervisitedtheFederalRepublicofGermanyastheheadoftheGDR.

OnOctober3,1990,theGDRwasmergedintotheFederalRepublicofGermany,andGermanywasreunified,splittingtheGermanreunificationformorethan40years.

RelationswithChina

OnOctober11,1972,theFederalRepublicofGermanyestablisheddiplomaticrelationswithChina.

RelationswiththeSovietUnion

In1955,theFederalRepublicofGermanyandtheSovietUnionestablisheddiplomaticrelations.

Famoussights

BrandenburgGate

BrandenburgGate(12photos)

BrandenburgTheDenBurgGateislocatedinthecenterofBerlin,ontheeastsideisParisSquare(German:PariserPlatz)andtheendofUnterdenLinden(German:UnterdenLinden),andonthewestsideistheMarch18thSquare(German:Platzdes18.ThestartingpointofMärzandJune17thStreet(German:Straßedes17.Juni)isasymbolofBerlinandanationalsymbolofGermany.IthaswitnessedmanyimportanthistoricaleventsinBerlin,Germany,Europeandtheworld.In1788,KingFriedrichWilhelmIIofPrussiaunifiedtheGermanEmpireandbuiltit.

Atthetime,thefamousGermanarchitectKarlGoetheharLanghanswasappointedtoundertakethedesignandconstructionwork.HedesignedthistriumphalgatebasedontheancientGreekcolonnadegateofAthens,andin1791Itwascompletedin1960andwasoncenamed"TheGateofPeace",andthegoddessonthechariotwascalledthe"GoddessofPeace".

SanssouciPalace

SanssouciPalace(11photos)

SanssouciPalaceislocatedinPotsdam,thecapitalofBrandenburgintheeasternpartoftheFederalRepublicofGermanyThenorthernsuburbsofthecity.ThenameofthepalaceistakenfromtheFrenchoriginalmeaningof"Worry-free"(or"Moshou").SanssouciPalaceandthesurroundinggardenswerebuiltduringtheperiodofKingFrederickIIofPrussia(1745-1757).Theentiregardencoversanareaof​​290hectaresandislocatedonasanddune,soitisalsoknownasthe"palaceonthesanddune".

CologneCathedral

CologneCathedral(16photos)

CologneCathedralisthemostperfectGothicchurchintheworld,locatedinthecenterofCologne,GermanyOnthebanksoftheRhine.Thehallis42metershighandthetoppillaris109metershigh.Inthecenteraretwodoublespiresthatareconnectedtothedoorwall.Thetwo157.38metersofspiresareliketwosharpswords,thrustingstraightintothesky.