Classification
Classifiedbyscope
Accordingtothescopeofcalculation,laborproductivitycanbedividedinto:(1)Individuallaborproductivity.Includingpersonallaborproductivityandenterpriselaborproductivity.Theformeriscalculatedbasedonthelaborcostofindividualworkers;thelatteriscalculatedbasedonthelaborcostofindividualenterprises.(2)Sociallaborproductivity.Itisbasedonthewholesocietyasaunittocalculatetheaverageamountofsocialnecessarylaborconsumedperunitproduct.Sociallaborproductivityisthefundamentalyardsticktomeasuretheadvancedandbackwardproductioninthewholesociety.
Individuallaborproductivityishigherthansociallaborproductivity,andtheamountofindividuallaborforproducinggoodsislowerthantheamountofsociallynecessarylabor;conversely,itishigherthantheamountofsociallynecessarylabor.Laborproductivityisdirectlyproportionaltothequantityofproductsproducedperunittime,thatis,thehigherthelaborproductivity,themoreproductsproducedperunittime;anditisinverselyproportionaltotheamountoflaborcontainedinaunitproduct,thatis,thelowerthelaborproductivity,theunitproductcontainsThegreatertheamountoflabor.
Accordingtoconditions
Laborproductivitycanbedividedinto:
(1)SocialproductivityoflaborreferstothedevelopmentofsocialproductivityThedegreeofproductivitydetermined.
(2)Thenaturalproductivityoflaborreferstotheproductivitydeterminedbythenaturalconditionsoflabor.
Marxsaid:"Inagriculture(thesameinmining),theproblemisnotonlythesocialproductivityoflabor,butalsothenaturalproductivityoflabordeterminedbythenaturalconditionsoflabor."Becausethenaturalproductivityoflaborisdifferent,thesameamountoflaborwillproducemoreorlessproductsorusevalue.Thisdifferencewillformdifferentialincomeundercommodityproductionconditions,anddifferentiallandrentunderprivatelandownership.
Accordingtothescopeofdifferentpersonnel.
Laborproductivityiscalculatedaccordingtothescopeofdifferentpersonnel.Itcanbedividedinto:
(1)Calculatedbyallemployees:itisallStaffproductivity.
(2)Calculatedbyproductionworkers:itisthelaborproductivityofproductionworkers;
Thequantityofproductsproducedcanusethephysicaloutputoftheproductandthestandardphysicaloutput,theproductionworkloadandtheproductvalue(totalCalculationofindicatorssuchasoutputvalue,netoutputvalue,etc.).
Influencingfactors
Thestatusoflaborproductivityisdeterminedbythedevelopmentlevelofsocialproductivity.Specifically,theleveloflaborproductivitymainlydependsonvariouseconomicandtechnicalfactorsinproduction:
①Theaverageproficiencyoflaborers.Thehighertheaverageproficiencyofworkers,thehigherthelaborproductivity.Theaverageproficiencyofworkersnotonlyreferstotheactuallaborskills,butalsoincludestheabilityofworkerstoacceptnewproductiontechniquesandadapttonewtechnologicalprocesses.
②Thedegreeofdevelopmentofscienceandtechnology.Themorescienceandtechnologydevelop,themorecommonlytheresultsareusedinproduction,andthemoreitcanpromotetheimprovementoflaborproductivity.
③Thequalityoflabororganizationandproductionmanagementplaysamajorroleintheleveloflaborproductivity.
④Thescaleandefficiencyofthemeansofproductionhaveadecisiveeffectonlaborproductivity.Mainlyreferstothedegreeofeffectiveuseoflabortools,thedegreeofutilizationofrawmaterialsandpowerfuels.
⑤Naturalconditions.Includingthedegreeofutilizationofnaturalresourcesandnaturalforces,willdirectlyaffectlaborproductivity,especiallythelaborproductivityofagricultureandmining.
⑥Socialintegrationoftheproductionprocess.
Theleveloflaborproductivityistheresultofthecombinedeffectoftheabove-mentionedfactors.
(Reference:"PoliticalEconomics")
Howtoimprove
Explanationofthetheory
LaborproductivityinvolvesdepartmentallaborproductivityThegrowthofthetwofactors,andthestructureofthesectorallaborallocation,canbedecomposedintothefollowingthreeparts.(1)Pureproductivityeffect.Thiseffectrepresentstheindustry'slaborproductivitygrowthratewiththebaseperiodoutputorinputastheweight,thatis,theweightedaverageoftheindustry'slaborproductivityincreaserateiscalculatedaccordingtothebaseperiodoutputorinputweight.Itiscalledthe"pureproductivityeffect"becauseitmeasurestheaverageincreaseinlaborproductivityineachindustrywhentheoutputorinputshareremainsunchanged.
(2)Baumoleffect.Thiseffectrepresentstheeffectofthemutualinfluencebetweenlaborproductivityandindustryweightchangesontheoveralllaborproductivityduringtheinspectionperiod.Thereasonwhyitiscalledthe"Baumereffect"isbecauseBaumerexplainedtherelationshipbetweenoutputandproductivityinhistheoryofunbalancedgrowth-outputgrowthandlaborproductivitygrowtharepositivelycorrelated.
(3)Denisoneffect.Thiseffectrepresentsthechangeinproductivitycausedbytheflowoffactorsorthedifferenceininvestmentrightsduringtheobservationperiod,thatis,theimpactoflaborredistributionamongdifferentindustriesonlaborproductivity.Itiscalledthe"Denisoneffect"becauseDenisonbelievesthatthetransferoflaborfromlow-productivitysectorstohigh-productivitysectorswillalsoincreaseoveralllaborproductivity.
Theaboveideascanbeexpressedbymathematicalformulas.XtisusedtodenoteGDPinperiodt;Stisthelaborinputinperiodt,thenlaborproductivityis:At=Xt/St.Thelaborproductivityconsideringthelaborallocationstructureis:At=∑iAitωit,whereωitrepresentstheproportionoflaborinputinthei-thindustryinthetotallabor.
IfRit=Ait/Atistherelativequantityofthei-thindustryandtheoveralllaborproductivity,g(A()isthegrowthrateoflaborproductivityinthesecondperiod,then:
Ifitisasmallsmoothtimeseries,thensit≈mit=Xit/Xt.krepresentsthebaseperiod,so:
Thefirsttermontherightsideoftheaboveformulaalwaysfixestheproportionoflaborineachindustryasthebaseperiod(mik),Onlymeasuresthedegreetowhichlaborproductivitychangesduetochangesinlaborproductivityinvariousindustries(g(Ait)),soitisapureproductivityeffect;theseconditemmeasuresthechangeintheproportionoflaborintheindustry(mit-mik)andthechangeinlaborproductivity(g(Ait))thecontributionoftheinteractiontolaborproductivity,soitisataciteffect;thethirdtermdoesnotconsiderthechangeoflaborproductivityineachindustry(g(Ait)),andonlyconsidersthechangeinthelabordistributionstructureofeachindustry(△ωit)onlaborproductivityTherefore,itistheDennisoneffect.Fromthis,wecanget:
Judgment1:Thegrowthoflaborproductivityinanyeconomyiscausedbychangesindepartmentallaborproductivity,changesindepartmentallaborallocationstructure,andtheinteractionoftheabovetwochanges.Theanalysisoflaborproductivitymustbecarriedoutfromthesethreeaspects.
Judgment2:Fordevelopingcountries,thelaborproductivityofdifferentsectorsorindustrieshasalargedifference,sothesectororThechangesinthelaborallocationstructurebetweenindustrieswillplayanimportantroleinlaborproductivityjustlikethelaborproductivityincreaseinvariousindustries.
Judgment3:Theincreaseinlaborproductivityinvariousindustriesmainlydependsontheintensificationofroundaboutproduction.Andtheincreaseintheuseofintermediateproducts,thisevolutionofdivisionoflaborcanbemeasuredbyper-workermaterialcapitalandhumancapitalinput,thatis,toincreaselaborproductivitybyincreasingtheorganiccompositionofcapitalortechnologicalprogress.
JudgmentFour:Toimprovelaborproductivitythroughlaborstructuretransformationindevelopingcountries,laborsupplyneedstobeinlinewithindustrydemand.Thisrequiresarelativelycompleteandeffectivelabormarkettosmoothlytransfersurpluslaborfromlow-productivitysectorstohigh-productivitysectors.
Theleveloflaborproductivitycanalsobeexpressedintermsoftherelativeamountofthemeansofproductionpromotedbythelaborerinacertainperiodoftime.Itisproportionaltotheamountofmeansofproductionpromotedbyacertainamountoflabor,andisthesameasthepromotionofacertainamountofmeansofproduction.Theamountofnecessarylaborisinverselyproportional.Marxsaid:"Theincreaseinlaborproductivityliesinthefactthattheshareoflivinglaborhasdecreased,andtheshareoflaborhasincreasedinthepast,buttheresultisthatthetotalamountoflaborcontainedincommoditieshasdecreased.Therefore,thereducedlivinglaborisgreaterthanIncreasedpastlabor”(TheCompleteWorksofMarxandEngels,Vol.25,p.290).Theincreaseinlaborproductivitymeansthesavingoflivinglabor.Therefore,undertheconditionsofcommodityproduction,laborproductivityisthesameastheuseofproductionperunitoftime.Thequantityofvalueisdirectlyproportional,andthequantityofvalueperunitproductisinverselyproportional.
Howtoimprovelaborproductivity
TheAmericanmanagementmasterMr.Dulac'sviewsontheissueofincreasinglaborproductivityareasfollowsThefollowingthreeaspects:
(1)Clearlydefinetasks:Thispointofviewiseasytounderstand.Everyactivityandprojecthasagoalthatcansolvetheproblemof"whattodo".
(2)Focusonthedefinedtask:Theliteralunderstandingis"concentrateoncompletingthetask."
Extendedunderstandingis:intheprocessofresourceinput-output,workcanbedividedintoeffectiveworkandineffectivework."Focus"referstoincreasingtheproportionofeffectivework.Theneveryoneshouldpayattentiontotheirowntasks.Thosewhoscrewthescrewsonlyfocusonscrewingthescrews,andthosewhoputthewheelsonthewheels.Inthisway,theproductionoftheassemblylineproductionmethodhasatheoreticalbasis.Japanpaysmuchattentiontothestudyofworkinghours,thepurposeofwhichistoincreasetheproportionofeffectivework.Regardlessoftheworkmovement,thestudyofthemachinearrangementhasthesamepurpose.Itcanbeseenthatthefocusedtaskhasitsresearchbreadthanddepth.
(3)Correctandreasonableevaluationtask:Thispointofviewisveryimportant.
Improperselectionofthescaleoftheevaluationtaskwillnotindicatethecorrectvalues.Theconsequenceisthattheenthusiasmofthepersonwhocompletesthetaskfadesandmisleadsthegroup’sperceptions.Manycompanieshavethesamecommonproblem(yield-quality).Enterpriseshaveproductionindicators,andofcoursetheyalsohavequalityindicators.Whentheoutputpressureisquitehighinproduction,iftherearetwoshiftsinproduction,oneoftheproductiontargetsiscompletedbutthequalitytargetsarenotcompleted;theothershiftisnotcompletedbutthequalitytargetsarecompleted.Thisisthecriticalcriterionfortheevaluationtask.MostofthecompaniesIhaveseenthinkthattheworkeffectoftheshiftthatcompletestheproductiontargetisbetterthanthatoftheothershift.Thentheimpactofthisevaluationstandardcanbeimagined.Onlycorrectandreasonableevaluationstandardscanhaveagoodguidingeffect,stimulatetheinternalmotivationofthegroup,andimprovetheworkeffectandefficiency.
Startwithhumanresources
(1)Economicinvestmentinhumanresources
(2)Reasonableorganizationandallocationofpersonnel
(3)Improvingthequalityofemployeesthrougheducationandtraining
(4)Encouragingpersonnel
(5)Buildingcorporateculture
Significance
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Theimprovementoflaborproductivityhasdifferentsituationsandmeaningsunderdifferentsocialsystems.
Thecapitalistsystem
Underthecapitalistsystem,inordertoobtainmoresurplusvalue,variouscapitalistsrushtoadoptnewtechnologiestoincreaselaborproductivityandreducetheindividualvalueofcommodities.Inordertoobtainexcesssurplusvalue;theresultofvariouscapitalistscompetingtopursueexcesssurplusvaluehaspromotedthedevelopmentofcapitalistsocialproductiveforces.However,thiskindofdevelopmentislimited,becausethecapitalistwillonlyadoptnewtechnologieswithinthelimitsofincreasingsurplusvalue,otherwisehewouldrathermaintainthestatusquoorevenhindertheapplicationofnewtechnologies.Atthesametime,theincreaseinlaborproductivityisanimportantfactorforcapitaliststoaccumulatecapital,andforlaborers,itwillcauseunemployment,whichdeepensthebasiccontradictionsofcapitalismandtheresultingperiodiceconomiccrises.,Sothatsocialproductivityisdestroyed.
Thesocialistsystem
Underthesocialistsystem,duetotheestablishmentofpublicownershipofthemeansofproduction,exploitationandoppressionhavebeeneliminated,andworkershavebecomethemastersofthemeansofproductionandcangivefullplaytotheirenthusiasmforproductionAndinitiative,thusopeningupabroadpathfortheimprovementoflaborproductivity.Forsocialism,increasinglaborproductivityisextremelysignificant.Leninsaid:"Inthefinalanalysis,laborproductivityisthemostimportantandmostimportantthingtoensurethevictoryofthenewsocialsystem.Capitalismhascreatedlaborproductivitythathasneverbeenseenundertheserfsystem.Capitalismcanbecompletelydefeated,anditwilldefinitelybedefeatedcompletely,becauseSocialismcancreateamuchhigherlaborproductivity"(TheCollectedWorksofLenin,Vol.29,p.388).Onlywhenlaborproductivitycontinuestoincreasecanwefullydemonstratethesuperiorityofthesocialistsystem,continuouslyimprovethepeople'smaterialandculturallivingstandards,andcreatethenecessaryconditionsforthegradualtransitiontoacommunistsociety.
Determinants
Thestatusoflaborproductivityisdeterminedbythelevelofdevelopmentofsocialproductivity.Specifically,themainfactorsthatdeterminetheleveloflaborproductivityare:①Theaverageproficiencyoflaborers.Thehighertheaverageproficiencyofworkers,thehigherthelaborproductivity.Theaverageproficiencyofworkersnotonlyreferstotheactualworkingskillsoflabor,butalsoincludestheabilityofworkerstoacceptnewproductiontechniquesandadapttonewtechnologicalprocesses.②Thedegreeofdevelopmentofscienceandtechnology.Themorescienceandtechnologydevelop,andthemoretheyarewidelyusedintheproductionprocess,thehigherthelaborproductivity.③Organizationandmanagementoftheproductionprocess.Itmainlyincludesthedivisionoflabor,collaborationandlaborcombinationoflaborersintheproductionprocess,aswellasthecorrespondingprocessregulationsandeconomicmanagementmethods.④Thescaleandeffectivenessofthemeansofproduction.Mainlyreferstothedegreeofeffectiveuseoflabortools,thedegreeofutilizationofrawmaterialsandpowerfuels.⑤Naturalconditions.Itmainlyincludesthegeologicalstate,resourcedistribution,mineralproductlocation,climaticconditionsandsoilfertilityrelatedtosocialproduction.
Laborproductivityisdividedintoindividuallaborproductivityandsociallaborproductivity.Intheindividuallaborproductivity,thelaborproductivitycalculatedaccordingtothelaborefficiencyofindividualworkersistheindividuallaborproductivity;thelaborproductivitycalculatedaccordingtothelaborefficiencyoftheindividualenterprisesistheenterpriselaborproductivity.Thelaborproductivitycalculatedbytheaveragelaborefficiencyofthewholesocietyissociallaborproductivity.Sociallaborproductivityisthefundamentalyardsticktomeasuretheadvancedandbackwardproductioninthewholesociety.Ifindividuallaborproductivityishigherthansociallaborproductivity,theamountofindividuallaborforproducinggoodsislowerthantheamountofsociallynecessarylabor;conversely,itishigherthantheamountofsociallynecessarylabor.Laborproductivityisdirectlyproportionaltothequantityofproductsproducedperunittime,thatis,thehigherthelaborproductivity,themoreproductsproducedperunittime;anditisinverselyproportionaltotheamountoflaborcontainedinaunitproduct,thatis,thelowerthelaborproductivity,theunitproductcontainsThegreatertheamountoflabor.
Thecostoflaborcanbecalculatedaccordingtothescopeofdifferentpersonnel.Forexample,ifcalculatedbyallemployees,itisthelaborproductivityofallemployees,andcalculatedbyproductionworkers,itisthelaborproductivityofproductionworkers;theamountofproductsproducedcanbeusedinactualproductsCalculationofindicatorssuchasoutput,standardphysicaloutput,productionworkload,andproductvalue(totaloutputvalue,netoutputvalue,etc.).
Relatedresearchinmycountry
ImprovingChina’slaborproductivity:
Laborproductivityisacoreindicatortomeasureacountry’seconomicdevelopmentlevelandproductivitydevelopmentlevel.Fromahistoricalverticalcomparison,thereformandopeninguphavegreatlypromotedChina’slaborproductivity.AccordingtotheWorldBank’sreport,China’slaborproductivityin2011was8timesthatof1980.Calculatedbyparitypurchasingpower,China’sactualLaborproductivityhasalsomorethandoubledover1990.
ButtheresultofthehorizontalcomparisonisthatChina'slaborproductivitylevelisnotonlydecadesbehindthatofdevelopedcountries,butalsonotasgoodasLatinAmerica,India,Thailand,andMorocco.OnSeptember26,Ernst&Youngreleasedthe"Imperative:ImprovingChina'sProductivity"reportthatChinesecompaniesurgentlyneedtoincreaseproductivityinordertomaintainprofitgrowth,andthatincreasingproductivityiscriticaltoChina'sfutureeconomicdevelopment.Thereportclaimsthatcapital-drivengrowthisunsustainable,andincreasingproductivitywillbethekeytounlockingChina'seconomicpotential.
TheChineseAcademyofScienceshasissuedmanyreportsthatChina’slaborproductivityisonly1/12ththatoftheUnitedStatesand1/11ththatofJapan.
ThelaggingstatusofChina’slaborproductivitynotonlydeeplyreflectsthestatusquoofChina’seconomicdevelopment,thatis,theactualdevelopmentqualityofChina’seconomyisfarfrombeingashighasthesurfacedatashows,andthereisactuallyabigbubblefactor.TheresultingproblemshavehadasignificantimpactonthefundamentalsofChina'seconomy.Sincetheendof2010,thesustainedslowdowninChina'seconomicgrowthisoneofitsoutstandingfeatures.
ThelowleveloflaborproductivitymaybeextremelydetrimentaltoChina,whichhascausedChina'soriginalabundantcheaplaborandprosperouslow-value-addedindustrialproductiontopromoteeconomicinefficiencyandlarge-scalegrowth.However,thereisnomorecompetitivelaborforceandhighvalue-addedindustriesthatcontinuetopromotestableandefficienteconomicgrowth.
Inthefuture,China’sworking-agepopulationwillbesignificantlyreduced.WiththeincreaseinChina’sinflationlevel,laborpriceshavealsobeenrisinginrecentyears.Therefore,Chinawillhavetofaceareductionintheworking-agepopulationandThedoublenegativeresultoftheincreaseinlaborcostswillcausetheeconomytolingeratalowlevelforalongtime.Thekeytoincreasinglaborproductivitydependsonlabor,thatis,thehumanfactoristhekeytoincreasinglaborproductivity.
Themistakesinthepastaretofocustoomuchonquantitygrowthandneglectqualityimprovement,excessiveuseofcheaplaborandrelianceongovernmentinvestmenttopromoteeconomicscaleAlthoughthesuperficialprosperityanddevelopmenthavenotbeenachievedsimultaneously,theincreaseinlaborproductivityhasnotbeenachieved.Afterallkindsofcontradictionsandproblemsconvergetoacriticalpoint,economicdevelopmentwillinevitablyencounterdifficultiesandslowdowningrowth.Ifeffectivereformsarenotcarriedout,theeconomywillfallintolowgrowthforalongtimeorevenstagnate.
TheslowdowninChina’seconomicgrowthistheresultofacombinationofvariousfactors,butthereisnodoubtthatlowlaborproductivityisoneofitscorefactors.TheunderlyingproblembehindthephenomenonoflowlaborproductivityinChinaandthepossibleadverseconsequencesisthattheChineseeconomyhasnotfullyandthoroughlyimplementedthelawsofthemarketeconomy,andhasshownastructurallydistortedpatternundertheinterventionofpower.Ontheonehand,itistherapideconomicgrowth.TheprosperoussceneofChina,ontheonehand,isthebubbleandinefficiencyhiddenunderthispileofprosperity,includinglowlaborproductivity,highvalue-addedindustriesthathavenotbecomethebackboneofthenationaleconomy,andtheproliferationofexpansionarygovernmentinvestment.
ThefreenatureofthemarketeconomyandtheinterventionofpowerareoneofthebasiccontradictionsfacingthecurrentChineseeconomy.Power'sinterventionintheeconomymainlyreliesonthecomprehensiveuseofeconomicmeansledbyadministrativeresources,suchasfiscal,taxation,andfinancialpolicies.However,themoremalignantformofpowerinterventionisthedirectinvolvementofgovernmentofficialsineconomicoperationsthroughadministrativeorders.Links,suchasrent-seekingthroughpower,makethegovernment’sbiddingbehaviorblurandweaken.
Inadditiontotheloftybeliefsforthecountryandcareer,therearetwowaysofthinkingthatdominateofficials.Oneisthateverythingrevolvesaroundpoliticalachievementsandpromotespersonaldevelopmentthroughthepromotionofeconomicdevelopment;theotheristhatRent-seekingforpower.Politicalachievementthinkingdeterminesthattheyputeconomicgrowthinthefirstplaceinlocaldevelopment,doeverythingpossibletointroduceprojects,attractinvestment,doeverythingpossibletogatherfunds,increaseinvestment,inaword,itistobecomeanofficial,promotegrowth,andopenuppersonalpromotion.Thedoortoconvenience.
Underthethinkingofpoliticalachievements,theywilltendtodevelopshort,flatandquickprojects,anddevelopprojectswithimmediateeffect,suchasrealestate,lowvalue-addedprocessingindustries,andheavyindustriessuchaschemicalandcoal.Theseindustriesunderestimatetheimprovementoflaborproductivityanddonotpayattentiontotheimprovementoflaborskills.Atthesametime,becauseofficialsaretooinvestedintangibleprojects,educationandtechnologywithlong-termsignificanceandstrategicvaluearedifficult.Toobtainastatuscommensuratewithitsrole,theknowledgeandskillsofthelaborforcecannotbeimprovedforalongtime.Astimepasses,nomatterwhetheritislaborfactors,technologicalfactors,orindustriallayoutfactors,itisimpossibletomakeapositiveandeffectivecontributiontoimprovinglaborproductivity.
Powertakescareofthekeylinksintheprocessofmarketoperation,andduetothelackofdemocracyintheproductionmechanism,thelackofinternalchecksandbalances,andthelackofexternalsupervisionfactors,itisdifficultforittobeeffectivelyrestrictedandabsolute.Therefore,Thedamagetothemarketeconomyandtheincreaseinlaborproductivityareoftenfatal.Underthepowerrent-seekingthinking,importantfundsthatcouldhavebeenusedtodevelopeducationandscienceandtechnologyweremisappropriated.
Onlythroughreforms,committedtochangingthesituationofpowerdominanceandexcessiveinterventionintheeconomy,andgivingfullplaytothedominantroleofthemarketmechanismineconomicoperationscantheproblemoflowlaborproductivityinChinabesolved.Atthesametime,startingwiththepowergenerationmechanism,internalchecksandbalancesmechanism,andexternalsupervisionmechanism,buildingadamforpreventionandpunishmentfordevianceandabuseisalsoanecessaryconditionforthereformsmentionedabovetobecarriedoutthoroughly.