American philosophy

PhilosophyinAmericanPublicLife

IntroductiontoPhilosophy

Sinceancienttimes,peoplehavenotstoppedthinkingabouttheworldtheylivein,butsomepeopleTurnthiskindofthinkingintoafixedwayofthinkingandregarditasaresearchobject,called"philosophy",andmorepeoplehavenosuchinterest,andtheystillfollowtheirownunderstandingoftheworld.Tolive.Ifallthinkingabouttheworldandlifecanbecalled"philosophy",inAmericansociety,nomatterinancienttimesorinmoderntimes,peoplehavenotlackedit.Thatistosay,thestatusofphilosophyinpeople'smindshasalwaysbeenfundamental.Andforemost.ThiscanbeseenfromtheuniqueadventureandpioneeringspiritofAmericansandtheculturaltraditionofpragmatism.Moreover,eveninthemindsofpoliticiansorsocialactivists,philosophyisnotsomuchatheoreticalpropositionasitisapolicyoflifeandabasicideaof​​solvingsocialproblems.Amongscientists,writersandexpertsinotherfields,philosophyisanecessaryconditiontoguideoneselfinresearchworkinthisfield.Ifweunderstandphilosophyinthisbroadsense,itsroleinAmericanpubliclifeismainlypersonal,anditisreflectedineveryone'sdifferentthinkingandopinions.

Thedevelopmentofphilosophy

However,duetothehighabstractionofphilosophicaltheoryandthedistancebetweenitandrealproblems,suchaphilosophyisdifficulttobeacceptedbyordinarypeople.Moreover,withtheincreasingdifferentiationofphilosophydisciplines,eventhephilosopherhimselfcannotunderstandthebranchesofphilosophythatheisnotfamiliarwith.Inaddition,thedisciplineofphilosophyhasatendencytodevelopmoreandmorescientifically,andtheliteratureofphilosophyisbecomingmoreandmoretechnicalandlogical,whichalsomakesphilosophyitselfdifficulttounderstandinpubliclife.Moreimportantly,therehasalwaysbeenatraditionofdespisingtheoryandemphasizingpracticalresultsinAmericansociallife.Thosepurelytheoreticalphilosophicalpropositions,intheeyesofordinarypeople,notonlyarenotconducivetogainingprofitsineconomiclife,butalsocausesomeideologicalconfusion,becausesuchpropositionsareoftenbasedonthephilosopher’sownstandpointandareverypowerful.Constraint,andthisisinconsistentwiththeliberalthinkingthatAmericansusuallyaccept.Inaddition,therearealsofactorsthatexcludephilosophicaltheoriesintheAmericanreligiouscultureandeducationsystem.ProtestantChristianity,whichdominatesAmericanculture,promotesfreedomofreligion,notphilosopher-stylecontemplation.Thisfreedomofreligionisnotonlyreflectedintheinterpretationofdoctrine,butalsointheformofparticipationofordinarypeopleinreligiousactivities.Americans'participationinreligiousactivitiesnotonlyactsaccordingtotheirownwishes,butalsovariesinform,andespeciallylikestoexpresstheirreligiousbeliefsintheformofmoderngatherings.Thefreechoiceofreligionandvariousformsofchurchactivitieshavemadephilosophicalcontemplationanartythingforordinarypeople.Ontheotherhand,therequirementsforphilosophycoursesintheAmericaneducationsystemareonlychoicesavailableinuniversities,whileinmiddleschoolcourses,philosophyisoneofthefewhumanitiesthatareexcludedfromthecurriculum.Therefore,whenstudentsgraduatefrommiddleschoolandentercollegesanduniversities,unlesstheyhaveaspecialinterestinphilosophy,itisimpossibleforthemtochoosephilosophythattheyhavenotbeenexposedtoinmiddleschool.Inthiscase,itwillbedifficultforthemtohaveanyinterestinphilosophylaterinlife.

Thestatusofphilosophy

AllthesesituationsshowthatthephilosophicalthoughtsthatappearasatheoreticalsystemdonothaveaplaceinthepubliclifeofAmericansociety,butthephilosophyoflifeattitudeandworldviewisincommonAmericanshavenotlosttheirroleintheirminds.Thisroleismanifestedthroughculturalmedia(suchastelevision,radio,booksandnewspapers,etc.)andpopularlifestyles.However,thephilosophythatworksinthemindsofordinarypeopleismainlythelifeconceptandworldoutlookdominatedbyculturalmonopolygroups.People'sdailylifeisshroudedinthisculturalmanipulation.Althoughthedevelopmentofmodernmediahasprovidedpeoplewithmorepossibilitiestochoosedifferentculturalconsumptionmethodsthanbefore,theculturalidentityandcollectivepsychologyofcrowdsoftenmakepeoplehavetochoosethelifeconceptsandlifestylesprovidedbythemedia.Thismakesevenphilosophyasanattitudetolifebecomethemaincontentofculturalmonopoly.

Ontheotherhand,theroleofphilosophy(nomatterwhatformitappearsin)inpubliclifehasbecomeincreasinglymarginalized:philosophyasalifeattitudehaslostitsindividualcharacteristicsduetotheroleofculturalmedia.Inacountrywhereinformationchannelsarehighlydeveloped,peoplehavelessandlessindividualityandlessindependentthinking.Onthesurface,culturaldiversityhidesthelackofdepthofthinking.Moreover,culturalmonopolydominatespeoplebyencouragingindividuality.Peopleoftenchoosetoacceptthecultureandphilosophypromotedbythemassmediaasthemainchoice.Asaresult,suchcultureandphilosophyhavecompletelybecomeameansofconsumptionandlosetheirdueideologicalconnotation;atthesametime,asatheoreticalsystemBecauseofitsprofoundincomprehensibility,philosopher’sphilosophyhasbeenexcludedfromthecultureacceptabletothepublic.Peopleregardthephilosopherswhostudythisphilosophyasanalternativeinsociallife,andregardthisphilosophyasacastleintheskyfarawayfromreality.Oranoverlytechnicalbutuselessprofessionalfield.Asaresult,thisphilosophylosesitsvalueinpubliclife.

PhilosophersinContemporaryAmericanSociety

Thelowstatusofphilosophers

BecausephilosophyismarginalizedinAmericanpubliclife,philosophersareTheroleincontemporaryAmericansocietyisnegligible.Firstofall,theimageofphilosophersisnotgood,theyareusuallyexcludedfromthecircleofpubliclife.Forexample,theyarerarelyinvitedbythePresidentandCongresstobecomemembersoftheSupremeHonorCommittee,theyhaveneverbeenamemberofthePresidentialCabinet,amemberofCongress,agovernor,amayorofanimportantcity,orevenamemberoftheUnitedNationsoracountrythathasdiplomaticrelationswiththeUnitedStates.Ambassador.Second,itisdifficulttoseephilosophersinthepublicmedia.EvenintheculturalandspirituallifespecialprogramsonTVorradio,orintheculturalsectionofnewspapersandmagazines,itisraretoseephilosophersappearorheartheirvoices.Thisisnotbecausephilosophersareunwillingtoshowtheirfaces,butbecauseinthemindsofprogramdirectorsandnewspapereditors,philosophers’talksareoftenspecious,useless,helpless,andoftenmaketheproblemdiscussed.Morecomplicated.

Ontheotherhand,contemporaryAmericanphilosophersseemtohavenoillusionsorattemptstoparticipateinordominatesociallife.Becausemostphilosophersareclearlyawarethatphilosophyisnottheonlymeansorwaytomakealivingforthem.Althoughitisverydifficulttobecomeaprofessorofphilosophyatauniversity,andthesalaryoftheprofessorislowerthantheaveragesalaryofassistantteachersinotherfieldssuchaseconomics,law,engineeringorcomputerscience,manypeoplestillstruggletogetthisteachingposition.Themotivationforthisisbynomeanswhatmoneycanexplain.Thisisfirstofallthecharmofphilosophyitself.Whenmoststudentsmajoringinphilosophychoosephilosophy,theydonotregarditasameansofearningaliving,letaloneasameansofmakingmoney.Secondly,becauseintheUnitedStates,aneconomicallydevelopedcountry,choosingphilosophydoesnotmeanfacingthedangerofbeingunabletosurvive.Andwhenitisimpossibletotakephilosophyasacareer,onecanalwaysmakeanotherwayoflivingandmakephilosophyahobby.Itshouldbesaidthatthisjustreflectsthecharacteristicsofphilosophyitself,thatis,itbelongstotheleisureclassuniquetoleisure,andthisisoneoftheimportantreasonswhyphilosophyhasbeenspreadsinceancientGreece.Becauseamongphilosophers,philosophyhasneverbeenameansofmakingaliving;althoughtheyalsogetmeagerrewardsforwriting,theydonotreallyregardthiswritingasaprofessionalrequirement,butasconveyingtheirideasConceptualmeans,thosemeagerrewardsarejustaby-product.Fromthehistoryofphilosophy,wewillseethatthereisnophilosopherwholivesbybetrayinghisphilosophicalwritings.EvenphilosopherswholiveinpovertylikeSpinozaandFeuerbachhavenotbetrayedphilosophy.Asameansofexchangingone'sownlivingconditions.

Thereasonsforthelowstatusofphilosophers

Ofcourse,thereasonforthelowstatusofphilosophersisthatinadditiontothedeterioratingoverallhumanisticclimateofAmericansociety,thereisanotherimportantreason.Itistheworkofphilosophersthattendstomarginalizephilosophy.Thisismainlymanifestedin:First,theissuesdiscussedbyphilosophershavenothingtodowithsociety.Whencategorizingphilosophyinthephilosophicalworld,logicandmetaphysicsareusuallyregardedasthecorecontentofphilosophy,butthesecontentobviouslycannotarousepublicinterest;andeventheso-called"appliedphilosophy"topicsdiscussedbyphilosophers,fromOnthesurface,itshouldhaveacloserelationshipwithsociety,suchasracialissues,culturaldiversity,legalinterpretation,abortionrights,orfreedomofspeech,butthewaytheydiscusstheseissuesiscompletelyacademic,abstract,andappealingtothegeneralpublic.Thechoicedidnotplayanyguidingorconstructiverole.Second,irrationalityandskepticismtendtoprevailamongphilosophers.Theso-called"irrational"tendencymeansthatphilosophershaveexpressedgreatinterestinanti-philosophicalviewsfromothercountries,especiallythepost-philosophicalculturaltendencyrepresentedbyRortyandothers,whichdirectlydestroyedthefoundationofphilosophicalepistemology;Theskepticismtendstoshowthatphilosophersdonotmakefinaljudgmentsonanyfactsandopposeanythingwithcertainty.Third,thewritingofphilosophersistootechnicalandobscureanddifficulttounderstandhasbecomeanexcuseforesotericphilosophy.YoucanfeelthisbyjustreadingaphilosophicalmagazinepublishedintheUnitedStates.SinceanalyticalphilosophyhaslongdominatedtheAmericanphilosophycommunity,thelogicalanalysistechniqueusedinphilosophyhasbecomeanindispensabletoolforphilosophicalresearch;atthesametime,theinconsistencyintheuseofacademictermsbetweenphilosophicalpeershasalsoresultedinunderstandingAndcommunicationdifficulties.Forexample,inthefamous"InternationalPhilosophyQuarterly"in1999,therewasanarticlediscussingtheconceptof"deconstruction"(deconstruction)Different,andin1998therewerealsodiscussionson"theoryofGod",Christianspiritualphilosophy,andphysiquephilosophy.Thesearedifficulttounderstandandresonateeveninthephilosophicalworld.Accordingtostatistics,92%ofphilosophicalpaperspublishedin1984werenotmentionedorcitedinthefollowing4years.Thecorrespondingstatisticsare48%insocialsciencesand22inphysics.%.Afterenteringthe1990s,duetothefinerdivisionofthephilosophyprofession,thosepapersorworksdevotedtothestudyofacertainphilosophicalconceptofacertainphilosopherwereevenmoredifficulttogetpeople'sattention.Ifthisistrueinthephilosophicalworld,letalonewhatimpactthesephilosophieswillhaveonordinarypeople.

ThetendencyofdephilosophizingincontemporaryAmericanphilosophy

The"dephilosophizing"mentionedheredoesnotmeanthatphilosophersareengagedinworkthathasnothingtodowithphilosophy,butasRortysaidPhilosophersare"writingphilosophynon-philosophically"and"lookingatphilosophyfromtheoutside."Specifically,thewayphilosophersworkisnolongertraditionalacademicresearch,butmoreopen,moretolerant,andmorewillingtomarrywithotherhumanitiesorsocialsciencestodiscussissuesthatareofinteresttoallparties.However,suchproblemsareoftennotraisedbyphilosophers,butbywriters,jurists,politicalscientists,orsociologists,etc.,whohavepracticalproblemsrelatedtoreality.Theirworkingmethodshavechangedfrompersonalcontemplationtomeditation.Inanopenroundtablemeeting,everyoneputsforwardopinionsorsuggestionsonissuesofcommonconcernfromdifferentangles.Moreover,thepurposeofthediscussionisnottoestablishacertaintheoreticalsystemortopromoteacertainphilosophicalproposition,butonlyforthecommunicationofideasandachievecertainKindofconsensus.

Atthesametime,thelanguageusedbyphilosopherstoexpressphilosophicalthoughtshasalsochanged.Ontheonehand,analyticalphilosophersusealargenumberoflogicalsymbolsorformulastodeveloptheirownanalyticalarguments,andsomephilosophersdirectlyusenaturalscienceexpressionstoexpresstheirviews.Forexample,inPhilosophyofMind,analyticalphilosophersmainlyTheresearchworkofempiricalpsychologyisusedtoillustratetheimportanteffectofthestimulationofempiricalmaterialsonmentalactivity.Thesephilosophicalanalysesarefilledwithalargenumberofempiricaldescriptionsofmentalactivity.Inapositivesense,philosophersincreasinglyrespecttheopinionsofpsychologistsandneurophysiologistswhostudythehumanbrainandhumanbehavior.However,fromaphilosophicalpointofview,thisuseofpsychologicalmaterialshasledtoagreatermentalphilosophy.Moreandmoretotheempiricalpsychologyandbehavioralscienceforthestudyofhumanbehavior.Ontheotherhand,whendiscussingissues,historiansofphilosophyandotherphilosophershavegraduallyusedsomeconceptualtermsinliterarycriticismtheory,culturalanthropology,andpoliticaltheory,ordirectlyusedtheviewsofcertainliterarytheoriststoexplaintheirviews.Forexample,thetrendofpostmodernismthatprevailedmainlyinthetheoryofliterarycriticismwasintroducedintophilosophy,causingphilosopherstotalkaboutJ.Derrida,JF.Lyotard,G.Deleuze,andColumns.ThethoughtsofE.Levinasandothersarethemainobjectsofresearch,sowhendiscussingtheirthoughts,therearealotofambiguousconcepts.ThankstoRorty’swork,postmodernistphilosophyhasbecomeanimportanttrendintheUnitedStates,evenincludingthoseofJ.Baudrillard,F.Jameson,andDRGriffin.Ideasarealsodiscussedextensivelyinphilosophypublications,nottomentiontheideasofphilosopherslikeFoucault,A.MacIntyre,andC.Taylor.Thecoreconceptofthispostmodernphilosophyistodissolvetheso-calledfundamentalism,logic-centrism,andthedichotomyofsubjectivityandobjectivity,psychologyandphysics,valueandfactsintraditionalphilosophy.Theresultistodissolvetraditionalphilosophy.

Statisticsinthe1998IndexofAmericanPhilosophersshowthatthenumberofpapersonfamousphilosopherspublishedinAmericanphilosophyjournalsthatyear,thenumberofdiscussionsonDerridaandNietzschewasfarmorethanthatofRussellandSt.Lawson,55and123respectively,whileonly36discussingRusselland28discussingStrawson.Similarly,amongthe23paperspublishedintheInternationalPhilosophyQuarterlyin1999,thereare4papersdiscussingpostmodernism,3religiousphilosophy,3philosophicalhistory,2ethics,2philosophyoftechnology,andJames2articles,2OrientalPhilosophy,andtheothersdiscussthephilosophyofmathematics,aesthetics,Wittgenstein'sphilosophy,etc.ThedistributionofthetopicsofthesearticlescanclearlyshowthatevencorejournalsofAmericanphilosophysuchastheInternationalPhilosophyQuarterlyputtheresearchonpostmodernismandotherphilosophicaltrendsthatareregardedasalternativesinthetraditionalphilosophicalclassificationmoreimportant.Thestatusofthesearticles,andthewayinwhichthesearticlesarediscusseddirectlyreflectsthetendencyofAmericanphilosopherstowritephilosophyinanon-philosophicalmanner.

However,thenon-philosophizingtendencyofcontemporaryAmericanphilosophyismoremainlyreflectedinthefactthattheissuesdiscussedbyphilosophersarenolongerlimitedtothescopeprovidedbytraditionalphilosophicalmetaphysics,buthaveexpandedtheirresearchhorizonsbeyondphilosophy.Especiallybypayingattentiontorealproblemsandpublicaffairs,tryingtoexplaintheproblemsraisedintherealfieldfromtheperspectiveofphilosophers.Forexample,the1999ProceedingsoftheAmericanPhilosophicalSocietyusedawholeissue(No.2inJune)todiscusstheglobalizationoftheworldeconomy.Thispracticeisstillveryrareinphilosophypublications.Similarly,the"PhilosophyForumQuarterly"publishedbytheStateUniversityofNewYork,the"PhilosophyMagazine"publishedbyColumbiaUniversity,andthe"AmericanPhilosophyQuarterly"publishedbyBlackwellPublishingCompany,etc.,allpublishedalargenumberofpostmodernismin1999.Articlesonsocialism,businessethics,politicalphilosophy,psychology,feministphilosophy,andeconomicculture.SincemostoftheAmericanphilosophymagazinesarequarterly,thereareonlyfourissuesayear,sotheyareverystrictandcautiousinchoosingthetopicofthearticle.Therefore,thebasicstatusquoofcontemporaryAmericanphilosophyresearchcanbeseenfromthetopicsofthepaperspublishedinthesejournals.

In-depthanalysisofthereasonsfortheemergenceofthisstatusquoiscloselyrelatedtothechangesinthephilosophyofcontemporaryAmericanphilosophers,thatis,theAmericanphilosophersattheendofthecenturyareconcernedwiththequestionofwhat"philosophy"isThereisacompletelydifferentunderstandingfromtraditionalphilosophy.Thearticle"Queen,DerridaandPhilosophicalIssues"publishedbytheStateUniversityofNewYorkColumbia(DavidGolumbia)inthethirdissueofthe"PhilosophyForumQuarterly"inSeptember1999fullyreflectsthedifferencesbetweenphilosophersinphilosophicalviews.TheauthorregardsQuineasarepresentativeofmaintainingtheanalyticaltradition,andDerrida'sthoughtasarepresentativeofpostmodernphilosophy.AccordingtoQuine’sorthodoxpointofview,the"philosophy"ofscientificspiritshouldbethepursuitoftruth.Therefore,clarityandstrictnessshouldbethebasicrequirementsofphilosophicalwork.InDerrida'sview,itisnotonly"philosophy"and"science."Theterm"truth"isquestionable,andevenwordssuchas"spirit"or"pursuit"arealsoquestionable,becausetheyareoftenseenascloselyrelatedtoreligioustheology,andthebloodrelationshipbetweenphilosophyandtheologyItisalsooneoftheimportantreasonswhyphilosophyortraditionalphilosophyshouldbeabandoned.Itispreciselybecauseofthedifferenceinphilosophythat,inQuine'sview,Derridacannotberegardedasaphilosopheratall,soheco-signedwith18otherworldphilosophersinthefamous"CambridgeIncident"toopposetheawardofDerridahonorarydegreebytheUniversityofCambridge..AnimportantreasonforobjectionisthatDerrida’swork“completelydoesnotmeettheacceptedclearandstrictstandards.”However,DerridaalsopointedoutinrefutingtheallegationsofQuineetal.thattheso-called"clearandstrictstandards"arenothingbutaspecialformofpropositions,andthathisdeconstructionisregardedasnonsensewithoutarguments"obviously.Akindofslander",becausethekeytoargumentliesindiscussionandinraisingquestions.

Interestingly,inthe"CambridgeIncident",DerridaeventuallyreceivedanhonorarydegreefromtheUniversityofCambridge;similarly,intheideologicaldebatebetweenhimandQuineandothers,histhoughtsseemtohavealwaysoccupiedUpside:Hisfollowersusedallkindsofopportunitiestodefendhim,andprovedinvariouswaysthatheshouldberegardedasaphilosopher,especiallytointerpretDerridainanethicalway,hopingtotakehisthoughtsasaguideLifeguidesfortheworkofphilosophers,suchasSimonCritchley,GeoffreyBennington,JohnCaputo,JohnSallis,DrucillaCornell,etc.;andTheattitudeofhisopponentshasalsochangedinrecentyears.TheynolongeropposeDerrida’sphilosophicalview,buttakedeconstructionasaphilosophicalactivitywithatolerantattitude,butatthesametimehopetotreatthisActivitiesaredistinguishedfromtheusageofphilosophicallanguageandtheclarificationofmeaning.ColombiaevenbelievesinthearticlethatDerrida’sopenattitudeonphilosophicalissuesistosomeextentsimilartoQuine’sview,becausetheyalladmitthatourlanguageandallegationsarenotenoughtobedeterminedbyevidence;DerridabelievesThehistorical,constructive,andlinguisticfeaturesofphilosophicalpracticearenotenoughtobedeterminedbyobservation.Quinedirectlydeniedthispossibilityinadvance.Theauthorconcludesfromthis,"Queen’sphilosophyisstructuredtocontainthedeconstructionenergyreleasedbyhisphilosophy;hisphilosophicalsystemshowsthatitinstitutionalizesthemasteryofthefactthatitiscontrolledbyhisphilosophyoflanguage.Thedeconstructionofrelease.Therefore,Quine’sworkfullyreflectsthedeconstructionactivitiesinthephilosophydiscussedbyDerrida."

Itshouldbesaidthatitisanimportantreasonforthede-philosophizingtendencyincontemporaryAmericanphilosophy.Thereasonisthere-understandingofthenatureofphilosophybyphilosophers.Ifphilosophyisnolongerregardedasakindof"kingofscience",itnolongerhasasuperiorpositionoverotherhumanitiesandsocialsciences,itisnolongerapurespeculationusedtoconstructatheoreticalsystem,anditisnolongerapreciseinterpretationofthemeaningoflanguage.Thescientificpursuitofsexandrigor,thenthisphilosophywillbemoreopenandmoreeasilytolerantofallactivitiesthatpeopleusetothinkaboutlanguageordiscussproblems.Thiskindofphilosophymaynotbea“proposition”withatheoreticalform,orevenanideathatputsforwardacertainconcept.Itjustcriticizesexistingtheories,orgivesanewexplanationoranewexplanationtotheworkofphilosophers.Pronunciation.Theso-called"philosophicalopenness"meansthattherearenorestrictiveconditionsfortheunderstandingofthenatureofphilosophy,anditispossibletoaskquestionsabouteverythingthatisregardedasphilosophy,andtoaskquestionsfromdifferentanglesorpositions;similarly,thiskindofphilosophyisopenNoristhepurposeofestablishinganewphilosophicaltheory,becauseaccordingtothisopenspirit,suchatheorydoesnotexist.

Fromahistoricalperspective,itisnoaccidentthatcontemporaryAmericanphilosophersrethinkthenatureofphilosophy.Itreflectsapsychologicalcomplexattheendofthecentury.Attheendofthe19thcenturyandthebeginningofthe20thcentury,philosophersalsoraisedquestionsaboutwhatphilosophyis.Whenanalyzingthereasonsforthefailureofphilosophyinthe19thcentury,theGermanphilosopherBrentanopointedoutthat“lackofuniversallyacceptabletheorems;theoverallrevolutionthatphilosophyhasenduredoneafteranother;itisimpossibletoachievethegoalsitchoosesempirically;andpracticalapplications.Theimpossibilityof",thesehavecausedphilosophyinthemindsofmostpeopletobeonlysimilartothingslikeastrologyoralchemy,andcannotberegardedasakindofscience.Duetothelong-termdominanceofphilosophybyHegelianphilosophyandtheriseofnaturalismbasedonpsychology,philosophyhasbecomemoreandmoreincredibleintheeyesofordinarypeople,andphilosophersarealsoconcernedaboutthenatureofphilosophy.Anewsuspicionarose.

Withthetremendousdevelopmentofnaturalscienceinthe19thcentury,especiallythediscoveryofthethreelaws,philosophershavetwocompletelydifferentattitudestowardsthefutureofphilosophyinthenewcentury,optimismandpessimism.Intheviewofsomephilosophers,thedevelopmentofnaturalscienceprovidesthemosteffectivemodelforthetransformationofphilosophy.Therefore,philosophycaneventuallybecomescienceonlyinaccordancewiththemodelofnaturalscience.Theresultofthisoptimisticattitudeiswhatweseenow.Analyticalphilosophyandtheresultingphilosophyofscience,philosophyoflanguage,etc.;whileanotherpartofphilosophersbelievethatbecausephilosophyandnaturalsciencearecompletelydifferentinresearchobjects,purposes,andmethods,philosophyandscienceshouldbestrictlydistinguished.Oncethisdistinctionismade,thefutureofphilosophyisnotasoptimisticasthedevelopmentofscience,becausephilosophyhaslostitsfoundationofexistence.AsAyerpointedout,"philosophylacksindependentcapital."ButthehistoryoftheevolutionofWesternphilosophyinthe20thcenturyshowsusthatphilosophersfinallychosetomakephilosophyscientific,thatis,tousescienceasthestandardandusescientificmethodstotransformphilosophy.However,thiskindofphilosophicaltransformationhascausedthelossofphilosophyitself.Thenon-philosophicaltendencythatappearedinAmericanphilosophyattheendofthe20thcenturywaspreciselytheresultofthisphilosophicaltransformation.

Atthesametime,thenon-philosophizingtendencyincontemporaryAmericanphilosophyisrelatedtotheover-emphasisonlogicalargumentation,therigorandprecisionofphilosophicalpropositions,andthecloseconnectionbetweenphilosophyandscienceinanalyticphilosophythathasdevelopedtothisday.Directrelationship.TheAmericanphilosophyofthe20thcenturybasicallyoccupiesadominantpositioninanalyticalphilosophy.Thisphilosophycombineslogicandexperience,andstrivestoclarifyandsolveallphilosophicalproblemsbymeansoflogicalanalysis.ThishasindeedbroughtnewideastopragmatismintheUnitedStates.Thevitalityof,thecombinationoflogicalpositivismandpragmatismfromEuropehasproducedlogicalpragmatismwithAmericancharacteristics.However,becausetheemergenceanddevelopmentofanalyticalphilosophyiscloselyrelatedtothedevelopmentofdisciplinessuchaslogic,mathematics,andlinguistics,withthedevelopmentofthesedisciplines,analyticalphilosophyhasgraduallyappearedtoplacetoomuchemphasisonanalyticaltechniques,andthescopeofresearchislimitedtospecificlogicalarguments,etc.Tendency,suchasthestudyofphilosophicallogichasgonedeepintothefullyformalizedmodaltheory,andtheanalysisofmeaninghasalsoenteredthestudyofdifferentusagesofdifferentlanguageexpressions.Thiskindofmeticulousanalysisandresearchisofgreatsignificancetoanalyticphilosophy,butitdoesnothaveapositiveeffectonthedevelopmentofphilosophyasawhole.Onthecontrary,itmakesphilosophersworriedthatphilosophyhaslostitsownparticularity.Infact,thenon-philosophicaltendencyincontemporaryAmericanphilosophyis,toacertainextent,arebellionagainsttheincreasinglytechnicalizationofanalyticphilosophy.Asaresultofthisrebellion,anewpragmatismemerged.

Thetraditionofpragmatismcontinuesinthenewcentury

AlthoughanalyticphilosophyoccupiesthedominantpositionofAmericanphilosophyinthe20thcentury,pragmatismintheUnitedStateshasnotcompletelywithdrawnfromthephilosophicalstage.Asaphilosophicalspirit,itisembodiedinthethoughtsofdifferentphilosophers.Sincethe1970s,pragmatism,asaphilosophicaltheory,hasreturnedtotheAmericanphilosophicalarena.Thisismainlyduetotheinfluenceofpostmodernism.Ontheonehand,duetothedeclineofEuropeandtheUnitedStatesreplacingitasthecenterofWesternculture,AmericanphilosophersThereisaculturalcomplextofindahomeland;ontheotherhand,duetothedestructionoffundamentalismbypostmodernism,cultureisrequiredtobere-examined.Itnolongeremphasizesobjectivelogicalanalysisbutemphasizeshumandignity,andtheseareinpragmaticthinkingCanbesatisfied.Itisagainstthisculturalbackgroundthatpragmatismhasgraduallyrecovereditsformergloryandbegantoplayanimportantroleinitsowncountrywithitsuniquephilosophicalimage.

Ofcourse,duetothepowerfulinfluenceofanalyticphilosophy,therevivalofpragmatismfirststartedfromthecampofanalyticphilosophy.RepresentativesincludeQuine,Putnam,Davidson,andRortyincontemporaryAmerica.Aphilosopherwhoplaysapivotalroleinphilosophy.Rorty'sbook"TheMirrorofPhilosophyandNature"isregardedasarepresentativeofthisnewpragmatism.Althoughhecannotberegardedasatrueanalyticphilosopher,thenewpragmatismheinitiatedstartedfromtheanalysisoftheflawsofanalyticphilosophy.Comparedwithclassicalpragmatism,thisnewpragmatismdoesnothaveaunifiedgoaloracademicpointofview,buttheyhaveinheritedthespiritofclassicalpragmatism,thatis,payingattentiontotheroleofhumanfactorsandculturalfactorsinthecognitiveprocess,andbringinglifetolife.Asastartingpointfordiscussingissues,wedenythatthereareso-calledpurelyobjectivetruthsbasedonthe“correspondingworld”.Forexample,Quinedeniesthatwecantranscendourlanguageandbeliefstofindaneutralandobjectiveknowledgestandard;PutnamclearlypointedoutthatthereisnoTheso-calledneutral"objectivefacts"thathavenothingtodowithhumanparticipation,allcognitiveactivitiespermeatehumanvalues;Rortyfundamentallyexplainsandreplacesthenon-humanincognitiveactivitieswithhumansocialcharacteristics.Objectivecharacteristics,thusdissolvingepistemologyintoethics,andcancelingtheobjectivityproblemofcognitiveactivitiesintraditionalphilosophy.Atthesametime,theyalsodrewideologicalnutritionfromtheclassicalpragmatiststovaryingdegrees.Forexample,QuinedirectlystudiedunderLewis,andobtainedtheconceptofempiricalholismfromJamesandDewey;similarly,PutnamtoldJamesJameshasasoftspot,andRortyhasadeeploveforDewey.TheseallreflecttheprofoundinfluenceofpragmatismtraditionincontemporaryAmericanphilosophy.

ItissaidthatwhenFranklindescribedtheUnitedStatestoEuropeans,headvisedthemthatiftheywerejustbornnobleandhavenoothertalents,theyshouldnevergototheUnitedStates,becauseAmericansnevertreatastranger.Askhimwhatkindofpersonheis,butwhathecando.Franklinsaidthisabout1872,wellbeforeJamesformallyproposedtheconceptof"pragmatism"in1898.ThisshowsthattheemergenceofpragmatismisonlyaphilosophicalreflectionoftheAmericans’spiritofstrivingtobestrongandfightingagainstthenaturalenvironment,andtheguidingideologyofactionfirstalsomakesphilosophersfocusontheexcitementofthinkingontheuseandeffect.Therefore,theaestheticworldviewofancientGreecegavewaytothepracticalworldviewofmodernAmerica.ItisthiskindofworldviewthathasguidedAmericanstocontinuouslyachieveamazingresultsinthehistoryofmorethantwohundredyearsofstruggle,andAmericanphilosophyastheembodimentoftheworldviewtheoryisdeeplyimprintedwiththetracesofpragmatism.

IncontemporaryAmericanphilosophy,inadditiontothetheoreticalpragmatismsystem,thistraditionaltraceisclearlymanifestedin:Ontheonehand,philosopherspayspecialattentiontothepracticallevelofthetheory,nomatterwhatThistheoryhasappearedinAmericanphilosophy,andsomeonewillsoongivean"introduction"tothistheory,similartothe"instructions"ofaproduct,tellingpeoplewhatthetheorysays,whyitsaysit,andusWhatshouldbesaidtoitandsoon.Comparedwiththephilosophicalworksofothercountries,thiskindoftextbook-likephilosophicalworksistherichestpartofAmericanphilosophy.Atthesametime,philosopherscanalsoexpressthosephilosophicalconceptsorpropositionsthataredifficulttounderstandevenbythepeopleinthecountrieswheretheywereborn,sothatreaderscanbasicallyunderstandthem.Ofcourse,itdoesn’tmatterwhetherthisexpressionisaccurateornot.Gotit.Therefore,incontemporaryAmericanphilosophy,themoremarketablephilosophicalconceptsareoftenthosethatcanbeclearlystated,suchasanalyticalphilosophy,philosophyofscience,philosophyofphysics,andofcoursepragmatism,andphilosophyofpersonality,processphilosophy,etc.Philosophicalideaswithstrongmetaphysicalcolorsaredifficulttoresonatewithpeople.

Ontheotherhand,contemporaryAmericanphilosophersoftenadoptatolerantandreconciledattitudewhendealingwithmoredifficultphilosophicalissues.ThiskindofbalanceisespeciallyreflectedinthetreatmentofthedivergencebetweenanalyticphilosophyandcontinentalEuropeanphilosophy.WecanseethatinAmericanphilosophypublications,articlesonanalyticphilosophyandcontinentalEuropeanphilosophyaccountforalargeproportion.IfyoulookatAmericanphilosophymagazines,youwillseealmostallarticlesonanalyticphilosophyandcontinentalphilosophy.Occupythesameproportion,andmanyphilosophersliketousesomeconceptualtermsincontinentalphilosophytoexplainanalyticphilosophy,orviceversa.

ThepragmaticattitudeadoptedbyAmericanphilosophersindealingwithvariousphilosophicaltheoriesisalsoreflectedinthefactthattheyusuallydonotsticktoacertainphilosophicalconcept,butconstantlychangetheirthinkingaccordingtotheoreticalneeds.Thisisofcoursenotbecausetheirthoughtsalwaysfollowthewind,butbecauseAmericanphilosophydoesnothaveaheavytraditionalburden,andtheydonotneedtoimposeacertainhistoricalresponsibilityonthemselvesinordertorespondtotradition.Theyonlyneedtobeabletojustifythemselves,regardlessofwhethertheymeetcertaintraditionalrequirements.Therefore,amongcontemporaryWesternphilosophers,Americanphilosophersarethebestatrevisingtheirtheoriesandpayingattentiontochangingtheirpositionsatanytime.Putnamisthebestexample.

PutnamisregardedasthedominantfigureinAmericanphilosophytoday,andhisthoughtinfluencespreadsacrossdifferentfieldssuchasanalyticalphilosophy,philosophyofscience,philosophyoflogic,philosophyofmathematics,andartificialintelligence.However,hisphilosophicalpositionhasbeenconstantlychanging,andtherehavebeenseveralimportantturningpointssincethe1960s.HefirstgaveupthescientificrealismpositionhehadadheredtosincehetaughtatPrincetonUniversity,andturnedtologicalpragmatismrepresentedbyQuine,Goodman,etc.,andthenputforwardthe"intrinsicrealism"viewpointtocriticize"metaphysics"."Realism"andopposedRorty's"Relativism",andfinallyputforward"Pragmaticrealism",andcriticizedtheseparationoffactandvalueinanalyticalphilosophy.Butinarecentarticle,heregretshisdenialof"soundmetaphysicalrealism"inthe1970s,andhisdenialofanalyticphilosophyisnotasfirmasbefore.

Atpresent,Putnam'sthoughtsarestillintheprocessofdevelopment.InhisdebatewithRorty,hecontinuedtointroduceRorty’spragmatism,soRortyhadtoclearlypointoutthefivecommonalitiesbetweenhimandPutnam,andcontinuedtoaccusePutnamofhimasa“culturalrelative”."Ism"andfeelpuzzled.ThefivecommonpointsRortypointedoutarethat(1)Theyallbelievethatwhatwecall"language"or"mind"penetratesdeeplyintowhatwecall"reality",makingthebeliefthatweareportrayingindependentofThenotionoflanguageisfundamentallywrong.(2)Theyallbelievethatwearedestinedtoacceptthepositionthatourworldviewnotonlyreflectsourinterestsandvalues,butalsorecognizesthatcertainworldviewsorcertaininterestsandvalues​​arebetterthanothers.(3)Quine's"translationaluncertainty"shouldberegardedasthe"relativityoftranslationinterest"contrarytoabsolutenessratherthanobjectivity.Anyassumedinterestisrelatedtocontext.(4)Thecoreofpragmatismistoinsistonthepriorityoftheparticipants'views.Ifwefindthatwemustadoptacertainpointofviewanduseacertainconceptualsystemwhenengaginginpracticalactivities,thenwewillalsothinkthatthispointofvieworsystemisactuallywhatweseeoruse.(5)Ethicalknowledgecannotassertabsoluteness,butthisisbecausetheconceptofabsolutenessisinconsistent.Infact,PutnamalsoshowedthesimilaritiesbetweenhimselfandRorty'sthoughtsindifferentplaces.Forexample,inhis"DeweyLecture"in1994,"Meaning,meaninglessness,andmeaning:aninquiryintotheabilitiesofthehumanmind",hetookabandoningrealismasacommoncausebetweenhimandRorty;inaddition,hepublisheditin1997Inhismemories,healsoregardsthedualismagainstfactandvalueashiscommoninterestwithQuine,Rortyandothers.AlthoughPutnamisalwaysreluctanttoadmitthatheisafellowtravelerofRorty,itcanbeseenfromtheaboveevidencethatwhatconnectsthemisthespiritofpragmatismthattheyhaveadoptedtogether.

IfRorty’snewpragmatismisacompleterebellionagainsttraditionalphilosophy,thenPutnam’spragmatismrealismtrulypenetratesthespiritofpragmatismintotheentirephilosophicalresearch,usingpragmatismAttitudetowardsallphilosophicalissuesandtheoreticalviewpoints.DuetotheimportantpositionandinfluenceofPutnam,Rorty,Quine,DavidsonandothersincontemporaryAmericanphilosophy,thepragmatismembodiedintheirthoughtswillcontinuetoplayanimportantroleinAmericanphilosophyinthenewcentury.