PhilosophieenAméricainPublicVie
Introductionàlaphilosophie
Sinceancienttimes, peoplehavenotstoppedthinkingabouttheworldtheylivein, butsomepeopleTurnthiskindofthinkingintoafixedwayofthinkingandregarditasaresearchobject, appelé "philosophie", andmorepeoplehavenosuchinterest, andtheystillfollowtheirownunderstandingoftheworld.Tolive.Ifallthinkingabouttheworldandlifecanbecalled "philosophie", inAmericansociety, nomatterinancienttimesorinmoderntimes, peoplehavenotlackedit.Thatistosay, thestatusofphilosophyinpeople'smindshasalwaysbeenfundamental.Andforemost.ThiscanbeseenfromtheuniqueadventureandpioneeringspiritofAmericansandtheculturaltraditionofpragmatism.Moreover, eveninthemindsofpoliticiansorsocialactivists, philosophyisnotsomuchatheoreticalpropositionasitisapolicyoflifeandabasicideaof solvingsocialproblems.Amongscientists, writersandexpertsinotherfields , la philosophie est une condition nécessaire pour s'orienter dans les travaux de recherche dans ce domaine. s.
Ledéveloppementdelaphilosophie
Cependant, duetothehighabstractionofphilosophicaltheoryandthedistancebetweenitandrealproblems, suchaphilosophyisdifficulttobeacceptedbyordinarypeople.Moreover, withtheincreasingdifferentiationofphilosophydisciplines, eventhephilosopherhimselfcannotunderstandthebranchesofphilosophythatheisnotfamiliarwith.Inaddition, thedisciplineofphilosophyhasatendencytodevelopmoreandmorescientifically, andtheliteratureofphilosophyisbecomingmoreandmoretechnicalandlogical, whichalsomakesphilosophyitselfdifficulttounderstandinpubliclife.Moreimportantly, therehasalwaysbeenatraditionofdespisingtheoryandemphasizingpracticalresultsinAmericansociallife.Thosepurelytheoreticalphilosophicalpropositions, intheeyesofordinarypeople, notonlyarenotconducivetogainingprofitsineconomiclife, butalsocausesomeideologicalconfusion, becausesuchpropositionsareoftenbasedonthephilosopher'sownstandpointandareverypowerful.Constraint, andthisisinconsistentwiththeliberalthinkingthatAmericansusuallyaccept.Inaddition, therearealsofactorsthatexcludep hilosophicaltheoriesintheAmericanreligiouscultureandeducationsystem.ProtestantChristianity, whichdominatesAmericanculture, promotesfreedomofreligion, notphilosopher-stylecontemplation.Thisfreedomofreligionisnotonlyreflectedintheinterpretationofdoctrine, butalsointheformofparticipationofordinarypeopleinreligiousactivities.Americans'participationinreligiousactivitiesnotonlyactsaccordingtotheirownwishes, butalsovariesinform, andespeciallylikestoexpresstheirreligiousbeliefsintheformofmoderngatherings.Thefreechoiceofreligionandvariousformsofchurchactivitieshavemadephilosophicalcontemplationanartythingforordinarypeople.Ontheotherhand, therequirementsforphilosophycoursesintheAmericaneducationsystemareonlychoicesavailableinuniversities, whileinmiddleschoolcourses, philosophyisoneofthefewhumanitiesthatareexcludedfromthecurriculum.Therefore, whenstudentsgraduatefrommiddleschoolandentercollegesanduniversities, unlesstheyhaveaspecialinterestinphilosophy, itisimpossibleforthemtochoosephilosophythattheyhavenotb Dans ce cas, il leur sera difficile de s'intéresser à la vie philosophale.
Le statut de la philosophie
AllthesesituationsshowthatthephilosophicalthoughtsthatappearasatheoreticalsystemdonothaveaplaceinthepubliclifeofAmericansociety, butthephilosophyoflifeattitudeandworldviewisincommonAmericanshavenotlosttheirroleintheirminds.Thisroleismanifestedthroughculturalmedia (suchastelevision, radio, booksandnewspapers, etc.) Andpopularlifestyles.However, thephilosophythatworksinthemindsofordinarypeopleismainlythelifeconceptandworldoutlookdominatedbyculturalmonopolygroups.People'sdailylifeisshroudedinthisculturalmanipulation.Althoughthedevelopmentofmodernmediahasprovidedpeoplewithmorepossibilitiestochoosedifferentculturalconsumptionmethodsthanbefore, theculturalidentityandcollectivepsychologyofcrowdsoftenmakepeoplehavetochoosethelifeconceptsandlifestylesprovidedbythemedia.Thismakesevenphilosophyasanattitudetolifebecomethemaincontentofculturalmonopoly.
Ontheotherhand, theroleofphilosophy (nomatterwhatformitappearsin) inpubliclifehasbecomeincreasinglymarginalized: philosophyasalifeattitudehaslostitsindividualcharacteristicsduetotheroleofculturalmedia.Inacountrywhereinformationchannelsarehighlydeveloped, peoplehavelessandlessindividualityandlessindependentthinking.Onthesurface, culturaldiversityhidesthelackofdepthofthinking.Moreover, culturalmonopolydominatespeoplebyencouragingindividuality.Peopleoftenchoosetoacceptthecultureandphilosophypromotedbythemassmediaasthemainchoice.Asaresult, suchcultureandphilosophyhavecompletelybecomeameansofconsumptionandlosetheirdueideologicalconnotation; atthesametime, asatheoreticalsystemBecauseofitsprofoundincomprehensibility, philosopher'sphilosophyhasbeenexcludedfromthecultureacceptabletothepublic.Peopleregardthephilosopherswhostudythisphilosophyasanalternativeinsociallife, andregardthisphilosophyasacastleintheskyfarawayfromreality.Oranoverlytechnicalbutuselessprofessionalfield.Asaresult, thisphilosophylosesitsva lu dans la vie publique.
PhilosophedansContemporainAméricainSociété
Le bas statut des philosophes
BecausephilosophyismarginalizedinAmericanpubliclife, philosophersareTheroleincontemporaryAmericansocietyisnegligible.Firstofall, theimageofphilosophersisnotgood, theyareusuallyexcludedfromthecircleofpubliclife.Forexample, theyarerarelyinvitedbythePresidentandCongresstobecomemembersoftheSupremeHonorCommittee, theyhaveneverbeenamemberofthePresidentialCabinet, amemberofCongress, agovernor, amayorofanimportantcity, orevenamemberoftheUnitedNationsoracountrythathasdiplomaticrelationswiththeUnitedStates.Ambassador.Second, itisdifficulttoseephilosophersinthepublicmedia.EvenintheculturalandspirituallifespecialprogramsonTVorradio, orintheculturalsectionofnewspapersandmagazines, itisraretoseephilosophersappearorheartheirvoices.Thisisnotbecausephilosophersareunwillingtoshowtheirfaces, butbecauseinthemindsofprogramdirectorsandnewspapereditors, philosophers'talksareoftenspecious, inutile, sans défense, andoftenmaketheproblemdiscussed. Plus compliqué.
Ontheotherhand, contemporaryAmericanphilosophersseemtohavenoillusionsorattemptstoparticipateinordominatesociallife.Becausemostphilosophersareclearlyawarethatphilosophyisnottheonlymeansorwaytomakealivingforthem.Althoughitisverydifficulttobecomeaprofessorofphilosophyatauniversity, andthesalaryoftheprofessorislowerthantheaveragesalaryofassistantteachersinotherfieldssuchaseconomics, droit, engineeringorcomputerscience, manypeoplestillstruggletogetthisteachingposition.Themotivationforthisisbynomeanswhatmoneycanexplain.Thisisfirstofallthecharmofphilosophyitself.Whenmoststudentsmajoringinphilosophychoosephilosophy, theydonotregarditasameansofearningaliving, letaloneasameansofmakingmoney.Secondly, becauseintheUnitedStates, aneconomicallydevelopedcountry, choosingphilosophydoesnotmeanfacingthedangerofbeingunabletosurvive.Andwhenitisimpossibletotakephilosophyasacareer, onecanalwaysmakeanotherwayoflivingandmakephilosophyahobby.Itshouldbesaidthatthisjustreflectsthecharacteristicsofphilosophyitself, thatis, itbel ongstotheleisureclassuniquetoleisure, andthisisoneoftheimportantreasonswhyphilosophyhasbeenspreadsinceancientGreece.Becauseamongphilosophers, philosophyhasneverbeenameansofmakingaliving; althoughtheyalsogetmeagerrewardsforwriting, theydonotreallyregardthiswritingasaprofessionalrequirement, butasconveyingtheirideasConceptualmeans, thosemeagerrewardsarejustaby-product.Fromthehistoryofphilosophy, wewillseethatthereisnophilosopherwholivesbybetrayinghisphilosophicalwritings.EvenphilosopherswholiveinpovertylikeSpinozaandFeuerbachhavenotbetrayedphilosophy.Asameansofexchangingone'sownlivingconditions.
Raisons du bas statut des philosophes
Ofcourse, thereasonforthelowstatusofphilosophersisthatinadditiontothedeterioratingoverallhumanisticclimateofAmericansociety, thereisanotherimportantreason.Itistheworkofphilosophersthattendstomarginalizephilosophy.Thisismainlymanifestedin: Tout d'abord, theissuesdiscussedbyphilosophershavenothingtodowithsociety.Whencategorizingphilosophyinthephilosophicalworld, logicandmetaphysicsareusuallyregardedasthecorecontentofphilosophy, butthesecontentobviouslycannotarousepublicinterest, andeventheso-disant "appliedphilosophy" topicsdiscussedbyphilosophers, fromOnthesurface, itshouldhaveacloserelationshipwithsociety, suchasracialissues, diversité culturelle, legalinterpretation, abortionrights, orfreedomofspeech, butthewaytheydiscusstheseissuesiscompletelyacademic, résumé, andappealingtothegeneralpublic.Thechoicedidnotplayanyguidingorconstructiverole. Deuxièmement, l'irrationalité et le scepticisme ont tendance à prévaloir parmi les philosophes. Different,andin1998therewerealsodiscussionson"theoryofGod",Christianspiritualphilosophy,andphysiquephilosophy.Th ercountries, especiallythepost-philosophicalculturaltendencyrepresentedbyRortyandothers, whichdirectlydestroyedthefoundationofphilosophicalepistemology; Theskepticismtendstoshowthatphilosophersdonotmakefinaljudgmentsonanyfactsandopposeanythingwithcertainty.Third, thewritingofphilosophersistootechnicalandobscureanddifficulttounderstandhasbecomeanexcuseforesotericphilosophy.YoucanfeelthisbyjustreadingaphilosophicalmagazinepublishedintheUnitedStates.SinceanalyticalphilosophyhaslongdominatedtheAmericanphilosophycommunity, thelogicalanalysistechniqueusedinphilosophyhasbecomeanindispensabletoolforphilosophicalresearch; atthesametime, theinconsistencyintheuseofacademictermsbetweenphilosophicalpeershasalsoresultedinunderstandingAndcommunicationdifficulties.Forexample, inthefamous en 1999. "InternationalPhilosophyQuarterly", therewasanarticlediscussingtheconceptof "déconstruction" différents, andin1998therewerealsodiscussionson "theoryofGod", Christianspiritualphilosophy, andphysiquephilosophy. E esearedifficulttounderstandandresonateeveninthephilosophicalworld.Accordingtostatistics, 92% ofphilosophicalpaperspublishedin1984werenotmentionedorcitedinthefollowing4years.Thecorrespondingstatisticsare48% insocialsciencesand22inphysics.%. Afterenteringthe1990s, duetothefinerdivisionofthephilosophyprofession, thosepapersorworksdevotedtothestudyofacertainphilosophicalconceptofacertainphilosopherwereevenmoredifficulttogetpeople'sattention.Ifthisistrueinthephilosophicalworld, letalonewhatimpactthesephilosophieswillhaveonordinarypeople.
La tendance à déphilosopher dans la philosophie américaine contemporaine
Le "dephilosophizing" mentionedheredoesnotmeanthatphilosophersareengagedinworkthathasnothingtodowithphilosophy, butasRortysaidPhilosophersare "writingphilosophynon-philosophiquement" et "lookingatphilosophyfromtheoutside." Plus précisément, thewayphilosophersworkisnolongertraditionalacademicresearch, butmoreopen, moretolerant, andmorewillingtomarrywithotherhumanitiesorsocialsciencestodiscussissuesthatareofinteresttoallparties.However, suchproblemsareoftennotraisedbyphilosophers, butbywriters, juristes, politicalscientists, orsociologists, etc., whohavepracticalproblemsrelatedtoreality.Theirworkingmethodshavechangedfrompersonalcontemplationtomeditation.Inanopenroundtablemeeting, everyoneputsforwardopinionsorsuggestionsonissuesofcommonconcernfromdifferentangles. Par ailleurs,ladiscussion n'a pas pour but d'établir uncertainsystèmethéoriqueoudepromouvoirunecertainepropositionphilosophique,maisuniquementpourlacommunicationd'idéesetd'aboutiràcertainessortesdeconsensus.
Atthesametime, thelanguageusedbyphilosopherstoexpressphilosophicalthoughtshasalsochanged.Ontheonehand, analyticalphilosophersusealargenumberoflogicalsymbolsorformulastodeveloptheirownanalyticalarguments, andsomephilosophersdirectlyusenaturalscienceexpressionstoexpresstheirviews.Forexample, inPhilosophyofMind, analyticalphilosophersmainlyTheresearchworkofempiricalpsychologyisusedtoillustratetheimportanteffectofthestimulationofempiricalmaterialsonmentalactivity.Thesephilosophicalanalysesarefilledwithalargenumberofempiricaldescriptionsofmentalactivity.Inapositivesense, philosophersincreasinglyrespecttheopinionsofpsychologistsandneurophysiologistswhostudythehumanbrainandhumanbehavior.However, fromaphilosophicalpointofview, thisuseofpsychologicalmaterialshasledtoagreatermentalphilosophy.Moreandmoretotheempiricalpsychologyandbehavioralscienceforthestudyofhumanbehavior.Ontheotherhand, whendiscussingissues, historiansofphilosophyandotherphilosophershavegraduallyusedsomeconceptualtermsinliterarycriticism théorie, culturalanthropology, andpoliticaltheory, ordirectlyusedtheviewsofcertainliterarytheoriststoexplaintheirviews.Forexample, thetrendofpostmodernismthatprevailedmainlyinthetheoryofliterarycriticismwasintroducedintophilosophy, causingphilosopherstotalkaboutJ.Derrida, JF.Lyotard, G.Deleuze, andColumns.ThethoughtsofE.Levinasandothersarethemainobjectsofresearch, sowhendiscussingtheirthoughts, therearealotofambiguousconcepts.ThankstoRorty'swork, postmodernistphilosophyhasbecomeanimportanttrendintheUnitedStates, evenincludingthoseofJ.Baudrillard, F.Jameson, andDRGriffin. Les idées sont également largement discutées dans les publications philosophiques, sans parler des idées de philosophes comme Foucault, A. MacIntyre et C. Taylor.
Statisticsinthe1998IndexofAmericanPhilosophersshowthatthenumberofpapersonfamousphilosopherspublishedinAmericanphilosophyjournalsthatyear, thenumberofdiscussionsonDerridaandNietzschewasfarmorethanthatofRussellandSt.Lawson, 55and123respectively, whileonly36discussingRusselland28discussingStrawson.Similarly, amongthe23paperspublishedintheInternationalPhilosophyQuarterlyin1999, thereare4papersdiscussingpostmodernism, 3religiousphilosophy, 3philosophicalhistory, 2ethics, 2philosophyoftechnology, andJames2articles, 2OrientalPhilosophy, andtheothersdiscussthephilosophyofmathematics, esthétique, Wittgenstein'sphilosophy, etc.ThedistributionofthetopicsofthesearticlescanclearlyshowthatevencorejournalsofAmericanphilosophysuchastheInternationalPhilosophyQuarterlyputtheresearchonpostmodernismandotherphilosophicaltrendsthatareregardedasalternativesinthetraditionalphilosophicalclassificationmoreimportant.Thestatusofthesearticles, andthewayinwhichthesearticlesarediscusseddirectlyreflectsthetendencyofAmericanphilosoph erstoécrirephilosophiquedemanièrenonphilosophique.
Cependant, Thenon-philosophizingtendencyofcontemporaryAmericanphilosophyismoremainlyreflectedinthefactthattheissuesdiscussedbyphilosophersarenolongerlimitedtothescopeprovidedbytraditionalphilosophicalmetaphysics, buthaveexpandedtheirresearchhorizonsbeyondphilosophy.Especiallybypayingattentiontorealproblemsandpublicaffairs, tryingtoexplaintheproblemsraisedintherealfieldfromtheperspectiveofphilosophers.Forexample, the1999ProceedingsoftheAmericanPhilosophicalSocietyusedawholeissue (No.2inJune) todiscusstheglobalizationoftheworldeconomy.Thispracticeisstillveryrareinphilosophypublications.Similarly, le "PhilosophyForumQuarterly" publishedbytheStateUniversityofNewYork, le "PhilosophyMagazine" publishedbyColumbiaUniversity, etla "AmericanPhilosophyQuarterly" publishedbyBlackwellPublishingCompany, etc., allpublishedalargenumberofpostmodernismin1999.Articlesonsocialism ,éthique des affaires,philosophie politique,psychologie,philosophie féministeetcultureéconomique. Il n'y a que quatre numéros par an, donc ils sont très stricts et prudents dans le choix du sujet de l'article.
En-depthanalysisofthereasonsfortheemergenceofthisstatusquoiscloselyrelatedtothechangesinthephilosophyofcontemporaryAmericanphilosophers, thatis, theAmericanphilosophersattheendofthecenturyareconcernedwiththequestionofwhat "philosophie" isThereisacompletelydifferentunderstandingfromtraditionalphilosophy.Thearticle "reine, DerridaandPhilosophicalIssues" publishedbytheStateUniversityofNewYorkColumbia (DavidGolumbia) inthethirdissueofthe "PhilosophyForumQuarterly" inSeptember1999fullyreflectsthedifferencesbetweenphilosophersinphilosophicalviews.TheauthorregardsQuineasarepresentativeofmaintainingtheanalyticaltradition, andDerrida'sthoughtasarepresentativeofpostmodernphilosophy.AccordingtoQuine'sorthodoxpointofview, la "philosophie" ofscientificspiritshouldbethepursuitoftruth.Therefore, clarityandstrictnessshouldbethebasicrequirementsofphilosophicalwork.InDerrida » Le terme « vérité » est discutable, et même des mots tels que « esprit » ou « la poursuite » sont également discutables, car ils sont souvent seenascloselyrelatedtoreligioustheology, andthebloodrelationshipbetweenphilosophyandtheologyItisalsooneoftheimportantreasonswhyphilosophyortraditionalphilosophyshouldbeabandoned.Itispreciselybecauseofthedifferenceinphilosophythat, inQuine'sview, Derridacannotberegardedasaphilosopheratall, soheco-signedwith18otherworldphilosophersinthefamous "CambridgeIncident" toopposetheawardofDerridahonorarydegreebytheUniversityofCambridge..AnimportantreasonforobjectionisthatDerrida'swork « completelydoesnotmeettheacceptedclearandstrictstandards. » Cependant, DerridaalsopointedoutinrefutingtheallegationsofQuineetal.thattheso-disant "clearandstrictstandards" arenothingbutaspecialformofpropositions, andthathisdeconstructionisregardedasnonsensewithoutarguments "obviously.Akindofslander", becausethekeytoargumentliesindiscussionandinraisingquestions.
Fait intéressant, INTHE "CambridgeIncident", DerridaeventuallyreceivedanhonorarydegreefromtheUniversityofCambridge, de même, intheideologicaldebatebetweenhimandQuineandothers, histhoughtsseemtohavealwaysoccupiedUpside:. Hisfollowersusedallkindsofopportunitiestodefendhim, andprovedinvariouswaysthatheshouldberegardedasaphilosopher, especiallytointerpretDerridainanethicalway, hopingtotakehisthoughtsasaguideLifeguidesfortheworkofphilosophers, suchasSimonCritchley, GeoffreyBennington, JohnCaputo, JohnSallis, DrucillaCornell, etc, andTheattitudeofhisopponentshasalsochangedinrecentyears.TheynolongeropposeDerrida'sphilosophicalview, buttakedeconstructionasaphilosophicalactivitywithatolerantattitude, butatthesametimehopetotreatthisActivitiesaredistinguishedfromtheusageofphilosophicallanguageandtheclarificationofmeaning.ColombiaevenbelievesinthearticlethatDerrida'sopenattitudeonphilosophicalissuesistosomeextentsimilartoQuine » parce qu'ils admettent tous que notre langue et nos allégations ne sont pas suffisantes pour être déterminées par des preuves ; DerridabelievesThehistorical, constructive, andlinguisticfeaturesofphilosophicalpracticearenotenoughtobedeterminedbyobservation.Quinedirectlydeniedthispossibilityinadvance.Theauthorconcludesfromthis, "Queen'sphilosophyisstructuredtocontainthedeconstructionenergyreleasedbyhisphilosophy, hisphilosophicalsystemshowsthatitinstitutionalizesthemasteryofthefactthatitiscontrolledbyhisphilosophyoflanguage.Thedeconstructionofrelease.Therefore, Quine'sworkfullyreflectsthedeconstructionactivitiesinthephilosophydiscussedbyDerrida."
Itshouldbesaidthatitisanimportantreasonforthede-philosophizingtendencyincontemporaryAmericanphilosophy.Thereasonisthere-understandingofthenatureofphilosophybyphilosophers.Ifphilosophyisnolongerregardedasakindof "kingofscience", itnolongerhasasuperiorpositionoverotherhumanitiesandsocialsciences, itisnolongerapurespeculationusedtoconstructatheoreticalsystem, anditisnolongerapreciseinterpretationofthemeaningoflanguage.Thescientificpursuitofsexandrigor, thenthisphilosophywillbemoreopenandmoreeasilytolerantofallactivitiesthatpeopleusetothinkaboutlanguageordiscussproblems.Thiskindofphilosophymaynotbea « proposition » withatheoreticalform, orevenanideathatputsforwardacertainconcept.Itjustcriticizesexistingtheories, orgivesanewexplanationoranewexplanationtotheworkofphilosophers.Pronunciation.Theso-disant "philosophicalopenness" meansthattherearenorestrictiveconditionsfortheunderstandingofthenatureofphilosophy, anditispossibletoaskquestionsabouteverythingthatisregardedasphilosophy, andtoaskquestionsfromdiffer les enchevêtrements ou les positions ; de même, ce genre de philosophie est ouverte et n'a pas pour but d'établir une nouvelle théorie philosophique, car selon cet esprit ouvert, une telle théorie n'existe pas.
Fromahistoricalperspective, itisnoaccidentthatcontemporaryAmericanphilosophersrethinkthenatureofphilosophy.Itreflectsapsychologicalcomplexattheendofthecentury.Attheendofthe19thcenturyandthebeginningofthe20thcentury, philosophersalsoraisedquestionsaboutwhatphilosophyis.Whenanalyzingthereasonsforthefailureofphilosophyinthe19thcentury, theGermanphilosopherBrentanopointedoutthat « lackofuniversallyacceptabletheorems, theoverallrevolutionthatphilosophyhasenduredoneafteranother, itisimpossibletoachievethegoalsitchoosesempirically, andpracticalapplications.Theimpossibilityof », thesehavecausedphilosophyinthemindsofmostpeopletobeonlysimilartothingslikeastrologyoralchemy, andcannotberegardedasakindofscience.Duetothelong-termdominanceofphilosophybyHegelianphilosophyandtheriseofnaturalismbasedonpsychology, philosophyhasbecomemoreandmoreincredibleintheeyesofordinarypeople, andphilosophersarealsoconcernedaboutthenatureofphilosophy.Anewsuspicionarose.
Withthetremendousdevelopmentofnaturalscienceinthe19thcentury, especiallythediscoveryofthethreelaws, philosophershavetwocompletelydifferentattitudestowardsthefutureofphilosophyinthenewcentury, optimismandpessimism.Intheviewofsomephilosophers, thedevelopmentofnaturalscienceprovidesthemosteffectivemodelforthetransformationofphilosophy.Therefore, philosophycaneventuallybecomescienceonlyinaccordancewiththemodelofnaturalscience.Theresultofthisoptimisticattitudeiswhatweseenow.Analyticalphilosophyandtheresultingphilosophyofscience, philosophyoflanguage, etc,. Whileanotherpartofphilosophersbelievethatbecausephilosophyandnaturalsciencearecompletelydifferentinresearchobjects, fins, andmethods, philosophyandscienceshouldbestrictlydistinguished.Oncethisdistinctionismade, thefutureofphilosophyisnotasoptimisticasthedevelopmentofscience, becausephilosophyhaslostitsfoundationofexistence.AsAyerpointedout, ButthehistoryoftheevolutionofWesternphilosophyinthe20thcenturyshowsusthat "philosophylacksindependentcapital." les philosophes ont finalement choisi de faire de la philosophie physico-scientifique, c'est-à-dire d'utiliser la science comme norme et d'utiliser des méthodes scientifiques pour transformer la philosophie.
Atthesametime, Thenon-philosophizingtendencyincontemporaryAmericanphilosophyisrelatedtotheover-emphasisonlogicalargumentation, therigorandprecisionofphilosophicalpropositions, andthecloseconnectionbetweenphilosophyandscienceinanalyticphilosophythathasdevelopedtothisday.Directrelationship.TheAmericanphilosophyofthe20thcenturybasicallyoccupiesadominantpositioninanalyticalphilosophy.Thisphilosophycombineslogicandexperience, andstrivestoclarifyandsolveallphilosophicalproblemsbymeansoflogicalanalysis.ThishasindeedbroughtnewideastopragmatismintheUnitedStates.Thevitalityof, thecombinationoflogicalpositivismandpragmatismfromEuropehasproducedlogicalpragmatismwithAmericancharacteristics.However, becausetheemergenceanddevelopmentofanalyticalphilosophyiscloselyrelatedtothedevelopmentofdisciplinessuchaslogic, mathématiques, andlinguistics, withthedevelopmentofthesedisciplines, analyticalphilosophyhasgraduallyappearedtoplacetoomuchemphasisonanalyticaltechniques, andthescopeofresearchislimitedtospecificlogicalarg uments, etc.Tendency, suchasthestudyofphilosophicallogichasgonedeepintothefullyformalizedmodaltheory, andtheanalysisofmeaninghasalsoenteredthestudyofdifferentusagesofdifferentlanguageexpressions.Thiskindofmeticulousanalysisandresearchisofgreatsignificancetoanalyticphilosophy, butitdoesnothaveapositiveeffectonthedevelopmentofphilosophyasawhole.Onthecontrary, itmakesphilosophersworriedthatphilosophyhaslostitsownparticularity.Infact, Thenon-philosophicaltendencyincontemporaryAmericanphilosophyis, toacertainextent, arebellionagainsttheincreasinglytechnicalizationofanalyticphilosophy.Asaresultofthisrebellion, anewpragmatismemerged.
Latraditiondupragmatismecontinueaunouveausiècle
AlthoughanalyticphilosophyoccupiesthedominantpositionofAmericanphilosophyinthe20thcentury, pragmatismintheUnitedStateshasnotcompletelywithdrawnfromthephilosophicalstage.Asaphilosophicalspirit, itisembodiedinthethoughtsofdifferentphilosophers.Sincethe1970s, pragmatique, asaphilosophicaltheory, hasreturnedtotheAmericanphilosophicalarena.Thisismainlyduetotheinfluenceofpostmodernism.Ontheonehand, duetothedeclineofEuropeandtheUnitedStatesreplacingitasthecenterofWesternculture, AmericanphilosophersThereisaculturalcomplextofindahomeland; ontheotherhand, duetothedestructionoffundamentalismbypostmodernism, cultureisrequiredtobere-examined.Itnolongeremphasizesobjectivelogicalanalysisbutemphasizeshumandignity, andtheseareinpragmaticthinkingCanbesatisfied.Itisagainstthisculturalbackgroundthatpragmatismhasgraduallyrecovereditsformergloryandbegantoplayanimportantroleinitsowncountrywithitsuniquephilosophicalimage.
Ofcourse, duetothepowerfulinfluenceofanalyticphilosophy, therevivalofpragmatismfirststartedfromthecampofanalyticphilosophy.RepresentativesincludeQuine, Putnam, Davidson, andRortyincontemporaryAmerica.Aphilosopherwhoplaysapivotalroleinphilosophy.Rorty'sbook "TheMirrorofPhilosophyandNature" isregardedasarepresentativeofthisnewpragmatism.Althoughhecannotberegardedasatrueanalyticphilosopher, thenewpragmatismheinitiatedstartedfromtheanalysisoftheflawsofanalyticphilosophy.Comparedwithclassicalpragmatism, thisnewpragmatismdoesnothaveaunifiedgoaloracademicpointofview, buttheyhaveinheritedthespiritofclassicalpragmatism, thatis, payingattentiontotheroleofhumanfactorsandculturalfactorsinthecognitiveprocess, andbringinglifetolife.Asastartingpointfordiscussingissues, wedenythatthereareso-calledpurelyobjectivetruthsbasedonthe « correspondingworld » .Forexample ,Quinenie que nous puissions transcender notre langue et nos croyances pour trouver une norme objective de connaissance des terres neutres ; Putnam a clairement fait remarquer qu'il n'y a pas d'objectif dit neutre faits "thathavenothingtodowithhumanparticipation, allcognitiveactivitiespermeatehumanvalues, Rortyfundamentallyexplainsandreplacesthenon-humanincognitiveactivitieswithhumansocialcharacteristics.Objectivecharacteristics, thusdissolvingepistemologyintoethics, andcancelingtheobjectivityproblemofcognitiveactivitiesintraditionalphilosophy.Atthesametime, theyalsodrewideologicalnutritionfromtheclassicalpragmatiststovaryingdegrees.Forexample, QuinedirectlystudiedunderLewis, andobtainedtheconceptofempiricalholismfromJamesandDewey, de même, PutnamtoldJamesJameshasasoftspot, andRortyhasadeeploveforDewey.TheseallreflecttheprofoundinfluenceofpragmatismtraditionincontemporaryAmericanphilosophy.
ItissaidthatwhenFranklindescribedtheUnitedStatestoEuropeans, headvisedthemthatiftheywerejustbornnobleandhavenoothertalents, theyshouldnevergototheUnitedStates, becauseAmericansnevertreatastranger.Askhimwhatkindofpersonheis, butwhathecando.Franklinsaidthisabout1872, wellbeforeJamesformallyproposedtheconceptof "pragmatisme" in1898.ThisshowsthattheemergenceofpragmatismisonlyaphilosophicalreflectionoftheAmericans'spiritofstrivingtobestrongandfightingagainstthenaturalenvironment, andtheguidingideologyofactionfirstalsomakesphilosophersfocusontheexcitementofthinkingontheuseandeffect.Therefore, theaestheticworldviewofancientGreecegavewaytothepracticalworldviewofmodernAmerica.ItisthiskindofworldviewthathasguidedAmericanstocontinuouslyachieveamazingresultsinthehistoryofmorethantwohundredyearsofstruggle, andAmericanphilosophyastheembodimentoftheworldviewtheoryisdeeplyimprintedwiththetracesofpragmatism.
IncontemporaryAmericanphilosophy, inadditiontothetheoreticalpragmatismsystem, thistraditionaltraceisclearlymanifestedin: Ontheonehand, philosopherspayspecialattentiontothepracticallevelofthetheory, nomatterwhatThistheoryhasappearedinAmericanphilosophy, andsomeonewillsoongivean "introduction" tothistheory, similartothe "instructions" ofaproduct, tellingpeoplewhatthetheorysays, whyitsaysit, andusWhatshouldbesaidtoitandsoon.Comparedwiththephilosophicalworksofothercountries, thiskindoftextbook-likephilosophicalworksistherichestpartofAmericanphilosophy.Atthesametime, philosopherscanalsoexpressthosephilosophicalconceptsorpropositionsthataredifficulttounderstandevenbythepeopleinthecountrieswheretheywereborn, sothatreaderscanbasicallyunderstandthem.Ofcourse, itdoesn'tmatterwhetherthisexpressionisaccurateornot.Gotit. Par conséquent, dans la philosophie américaine contemporaine, les concepts philosophiques les plus commercialisables sont souvent ceux qui peuvent être clairement énoncés, tels que la philosophie analytique, la philosophie des sciences, la philosophie de la physique et, bien sûr, le pragmatisme. le matisme, et la philosophie de la personnalité, la philosophie du processus, etc. Les idées philosophiques avec des couleurs métaphysiques fortes sont difficiles à résonner avec les gens.
Ontheotherhand, contemporaryAmericanphilosophersoftenadoptatolerantandreconciledattitudewhendealingwithmoredifficultphilosophicalissues.ThiskindofbalanceisespeciallyreflectedinthetreatmentofthedivergencebetweenanalyticphilosophyandcontinentalEuropeanphilosophy.WecanseethatinAmericanphilosophypublications, articlesonanalyticphilosophyandcontinentalEuropeanphilosophyaccountforalargeproportion.IfyoulookatAmericanphilosophymagazines, youwillseealmostallarticlesonanalyticphilosophyandcontinentalphilosophy.Occupythesameproportion, andmanyphilosophersliketousesomeconceptualtermsincontinentalphilosophytoexplainanalyticphilosophy, orviceversa.
ThepragmaticattitudeadoptedbyAmericanphilosophersindealingwithvariousphilosophicaltheoriesisalsoreflectedinthefactthattheyusuallydonotsticktoacertainphilosophicalconcept, butconstantlychangetheirthinkingaccordingtotheoreticalneeds.Thisisofcoursenotbecausetheirthoughtsalwaysfollowthewind, butbecauseAmericanphilosophydoesnothaveaheavytraditionalburden, andtheydonotneedtoimposeacertainhistoricalresponsibilityonthemselvesinordertorespondtotradition.Theyonlyneedtobeabletojustifythemselves, regardlessofwhethertheymeetcertaintraditionalrequirements.Therefore, amongcontemporaryWesternphilosophers, Americanphilosophersarethebestatrevisingtheirtheoriesandpayingattentiontochangingtheirpositionsatanytime.Putnamisthebestexample.
PutnamisregardedasthedominantfigureinAmericanphilosophytoday, andhisthoughtinfluencespreadsacrossdifferentfieldssuchasanalyticalphilosophy, philosophyofscience, philosophyoflogic, philosophyofmathematics, andartificialintelligence.However, hisphilosophicalpositionhasbeenconstantlychanging, andtherehavebeenseveralimportantturningpointssincethe1960s.HefirstgaveupthescientificrealismpositionhehadadheredtosincehetaughtatPrincetonUniversity, andturnedtologicalpragmatismrepresentedbyQuine, Goodman, etc., andthenputforwardthe "intrinsicrealism" viewpointtocriticize "métaphysique". "Réalisme" "Relativisme", andfinallyputforward "Pragmaticrealism" de andopposedRorty, andcriticizedtheseparationoffactandvalueinanalyticalphilosophy Mais dans un article récent, on regrette ce refus du "réalisme métaphysique sonore" dans les années 1970, et ce refus de la philosophie analytique n'est pas aussi solide qu'avant.
Atpresent,Putnam'sthoughtsarestillintheprocessofdevelopment.InhisdebatewithRorty,hecontinuedtointroduceRorty'spragmatism,soRortyhadtoclearlypointoutthefivecommonalitiesbetweenhimandPutnam,andcontinuedtoaccusePutnamofhimasa“culturalrelative”."Ism"andfeelpuzzled.ThefivecommonpointsRortypointedoutarethat(1)Theyallbelievethatwhatwecall"language"or"mind"penetratesdeeplyintowhatwecall"reality",makingthebeliefthatweareportrayingindependentofThenotionoflanguageisfundamentallywrong.(2)Theyallbelievethatwearedestinedtoacceptthepositionthatourworldviewnotonlyreflectsourinterestsandvalues,butalsorecognizesthatcertainworldviewsorcertaininterestsandvaluesarebetterthanothers.(3)Quine's"translationaluncertainty"shouldberegardedasthe"relativityoftranslationinterest"contrarytoabsolutenessratherthanobjectivity.Anyassumedinterestisrelatedtocontext.(4)Thecoreofpragmatismistoinsistonthepriorityoftheparticipants'views.Ifwefindthatwemustadoptacertainpointofviewanduseacertainconceptualsystemwhenengaginginpracticalactivities,thenwewillalsothinkthatthispointofvieworsystemisactuallywhatweseeoruse.(5)Ethicalknowledgecannotassertabsoluteness,butthisisbecausetheconceptofabsolutenessisinconsistent.Infact,PutnamalsoshowedthesimilaritiesbetweenhimselfandRorty'sthoughtsindifferentplaces.Forexample,inhis"DeweyLecture"in1994,"Meaning,meaninglessness,andmeaning:aninquiryintotheabilitiesofthehumanmind",hetookabandoningrealismasacommoncausebetweenhimandRorty;inaddition,hepublisheditin1997Inhismemories,healsoregardsthedualismagainstfactandvalueashiscommoninterestwithQuine,Rortyandothers.AlthoughPutnamisalwaysreluctanttoadmitthatheisafellowtravelerofRorty,itcanbeseenfromtheaboveevidencethatwhatconnectsthemisthespiritofpragmatismthattheyhaveadoptedtogether.
IfRorty'snewpragmatismisacompleterebellionagainsttraditionalphilosophy,thenPutnam'spragmatismrealismtrulypenetratesthespiritofpragmatismintotheentirephilosophicalresearch,usingpragmatismAttitudetowardsallphilosophicalissuesandtheoreticalviewpoints.DuetotheimportantpositionandinfluenceofPutnam,Rorty,Quine,DavidsonandothersincontemporaryAmericanphilosophy,thepragmatismembodiedintheirthoughtswillcontinuetoplayanimportantroleinAmericanphilosophyinthenewcentury.