Overview
TheU.S.FederalCourtisacourtestablishedinaccordancewiththeU.S.ConstitutionandU.S.laws.TheU.S.ConstitutiononlyspecifiestheestablishmentoftheSupremeCourt,andtherestofthecourtsareauthorizedbytheU.S.Congress.
ThejudicialpowerintheUnitedStatesbelongstothefederalcourts,andjudgesholdlife-longpositions.ThepowerofjudicialreviewisnotonlyarestrictiononCongress,butalsoarestrictiononthePresident,becausemanyofthelawspassedbyCongresscomefromthepresident'sproposals.Ofcourse,thefederalcourtsarealsorestrictedbythePresidentandCongress.First,judgesmustbeappointedbythepresidentandapprovedbytheSenateofCongress;second,Congresshasthepowertoimpeachjudges.
TheU.S.FederalCourtisapartoftheU.S.FederalGovernmentandcanbedividedintoordinarycourtsandspecializedcourts.Thegeneralcourtsaredividedintothreelevels,frombottomtotop:
DistrictCourt
TheCourtofAppeal(excepttheFederalDistrictCourtofAppeal)
TheSupremeCourt
p>Specialcourtsinclude:
BankruptcyCourt
TaxCourt
InternationalTradeCourt
FederalDistrictCourtofAppeals
p>ThefederaljudgesappointedbyCongressare:
9SupremeCourtjustices
179appellatejudges
642districtjudges
p>Atotalof840federaljudgesareappointedforlifetoensurejudicialindependence
TheFederalCourtSystem
TheUnitedStatesFederalCourtSystemconsistsof94federaldistrictcourts,13Itconsistsofafederalcourtofappealsandasupremecourt.
1.FederalDistrictCourt
Eachstatehasatleastonedistrictcourt,andlargerstatesmayhave2to4districtcourts.TherearecurrentlyfourdistrictcourtsinCalifornia,withofficesinSanFrancisco,Sacramento,LosAngelesandSanDiego.TherearealsofourdistrictcourtsinNewYorkandTexas.Thereare89districtcourtsinthe50statesoftheUnitedStates.Inaddition,theDistrictofColumbia,PuertoRico,theU.S.VirginIslands,Guam,andtheNorthernMarianaIslandseachhaveadistrictcourt,atotalof94federaldistrictcourts.Eachdistrictcourthasatleastonejudge,foratotalof576districtjudges.TheSouthernDistrictCourtofNewYorkinNewYorkCityhasthelargestnumberofjudges,with27judges.JudgesoftheFederalDistrictCourtareappointedbythePresidentwiththeconsentoftheSenateandserveforlife.Thedistrictcourtisthecourtoffirstinstancejurisdictionandthe"heaviestwork"courtinthefederaljudicialsystem.These91federaldistrictcourtshaveonlyfederaljurisdiction.However,thecasestriedbyfederaldistrictjudgesmayinvolvecitizensofdifferentstates.Atthistime,theyalsohavetoapplythelawsoftherelevantstate.MostofthecasesjudgedbytheFederalDistrictCourtcanbeappealedtotheFederalCourtofAppeals,andafewcanbedirectlyappealedtotheSupremeCourt.
Districtjudgescanappointclerks,bailiffs,legalclerks,courtreportissuers,courtrecorders,etc.toassisthiminhiswork.Butthemostimportantroleisthefederalmarshal.Therearetwotypesoffederallawenforcementofficers:full-timeandpart-time.Therearecurrently287full-timelawenforcementofficersand168part-timelawenforcementofficersnationwide.Theyarealsoappointedbydistrictjudges,butneedtobereviewedbyapanelofjurorscomposedofresidentsoffederaljurisdictions.Thelawenforcementofficerisappointedforaneight-yeartermandisresponsibleforissuingarrestwarrantsanddecidingwhetherthearrestedpersonshouldbeprosecutedbyagrandjury.Eachdistrictcourtalsohasafederalexecutiveofficerwhoisappointedbythepresidentandsupervisedbythefederalattorneygeneral.Hismaindutiesaretomaintaincourtorder,implementarrests,executecourtorders,andcallwitnesses.
2.TheFederalCourtofAppeals
The50statesintheUnitedStatesaredividedinto11judicialcircuits.Inaddition,thecapital,Washington,Thereareatotalof12courtsofappealsforafederalcourtofappealsineachcircuitdistrict.Thescopeofjurisdictionofeachtourareaisdifferent.Forexample,thesecondtourareaonlygovernsNewYorkandConnecticut,andtheninthtourareagovernsCaliforniaandotherPacificcoastsandninestatesincludingHawaiiandAlaska,plusGuamandNorthernMariana.Islands.
Thereisalsoaspecial"FederalCircuitDistrict"whosecourtofappealiscalledtheCourtofAppealsfortheFederalCircuit.Itiscomposedof12judgesnominatedbythePresidentandappointedwiththeconsentoftheSenate.TheofficeisalsolocatedintheDistrictofColumbia.Theappellatecourthasthesamestatusastheother12appellatecourts,butitsjurisdictioncoversthewholecountry,anditsjurisdictionislimitedtocasesinvolvingpatents,trademarks,copyrights,contracts,andcontractstransferredfromvariousfederaldistrictcourtsandrelevantfederalindependentregulatoryagencies.Domestictaxcases,aswellasthejudgmentsofthecourtofclaimsandtheInternationalTradeCourt.Therefore,therearetwocourtsofappealsintheDistrictofColumbia,oneistheDistrictofColumbiaCourtofAppealsandtheotheristheCourtofAppealsfortheFederalCircuit.Thetwoaredifferent.
EachFederalCourtofAppealshas6to28judges,allofwhomarenominatedbythePresidentandappointedwiththeconsentoftheSenate,allforlife.Appellatecourtshearcases,usuallycomposedofthreejudges,butparticularlyimportantandcontroversialcasesrequirealljudgestoattend.Theappellatecourthasonlyappellatejurisdiction,acceptsappealsfromcasesjudgedbythefederaldistrictcourtsinitsjurisdiction,andalsoreviewstheactionsofindependentregulatoryagenciessuchastheFederalTradeCommission.
TheSupremeCourt,theFederalCourtofAppeals,andtheFederalDistrictCourtareestablishedinaccordancewithArticle3oftheConstitution,sotheyarecalled"ConstitutionalCourts"or"ConstitutionalCourts",buttheyallbelongtoCourtofgeneraljurisdiction.Inaddition,therearespecialconstitutionalcourtsestablishedbyCongress,suchastheUnitedStatesCourtofInternationalTradeandtheUnitedStatesCourtofClaims.
Inaddition,thereisanothercategoryofcourtsnotestablishedunderArticle3oftheConstitutionbutestablishedbytheCongressforsomespecialpurposes,oritistheCongresstoexercisethelegislationgrantedbyArticle1oftheConstitution.Thecourtsestablishedbyrightsarecalled“legislativecourts”or“article1courtsoftheConstitution”.JudgesoflegislativecourtsaregenerallysetbyCongressforaclearterm,andtheyaregrantednon-judicialfunctions.Theirselectionandappointmentproceduresarealsodifferentfromthoseofconstitutionalcourts.Forexample,theMilitaryAppealsCourtoftheUnitedStatesappliesmilitarylawtotrialcasesandconsistsofthreecivilianjudges,appointedbythePresidentwiththeconsentoftheSenate,butforatermof15years;theBankruptcyCourtspecializesinhearingcasesrelatedtobankruptcy,andjudgesareappointedbytheFederalCourtofAppealsasafederaldistrictAsubsidiarybodyofthecourt.
3.SupremeCourt
TheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesistheonlycourtestablisheddirectlybytheconstitutionanditisalsothelastcourtofappealinthefederalcourts.Itwasestablishedin1790undertheJudicialRegulationsof1789,anditscompositionhasbeenincreasedordecreasedseveraltimes.In1869,theCongresspassedadecreethattheSupremeCourtshallbecomposedofachiefjusticeandeightjustices.Inthe1930s,PresidentRooseveltwasdissatisfiedwithaseriesofNewDeallegislationannouncedbytheSupremeCourtasunconstitutional.Hewonanoverwhelmingvictoryinhisre-electioncampaignin1936.In1937,heproposedtoCongressabilltoreorganizetheSupremeCourt,increasingthenumberofSupremeCourtjudges.To15peopleinordertochangetheattitudeoftheSupremeCourtby"mixingsand."However,thisbillfailedtopassCongress.Therefore,theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesstillconsistsofninejudges.
ThejurisdictionoftheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesisdividedintothejurisdictionofthefirstinstanceandthejurisdictionoftheappeal.Thejurisdictionofthefirstinstanceonlyappliestotwotypesofcases:oneiscasesinvolvingambassadors,otherministersandconsuls,andtheotherisallcasesinwhichastateisaparty.Inthesecondtypeofcases,inlegaldisputesbetweenstates,thejurisdictionofthefirstinstanceisexclusivetotheSupremeCourt.Inlitigationbetweenastateandthefederalgovernment,orbetweenastateandanotherstate’spoliticalentities,legalentities,orcitizens,althoughtheSupremeCourthasthejurisdictionofthefirstinstance,theSupremeCourtcanalsoallowthelowerfederalcourtstoconductthefirstinstance..
Inadditiontotheabovetwotypesofcases,allothercaseswithinthescopeoffederaljurisdictionhavetheSupremeCourt’sjurisdictiontoappealandmust"inaccordancewiththeexceptionsandregulationsprescribedbyCongress."ThismeansthattheSupremeCourtThejurisdictionofappealsissubjecttothecontrolofCongress,whichisdeterminedbyCongress.CasesinvolvingfederalissuescanbedirectlyappealedbythestateSupremeCourttotheSupremeCourt.However,theworkloadofappealsistoolarge.Therefore,theSupremeCourtcanonlyselectandreviewthemostimportantcases.Eachyear,theSupremeCourt’ssessionrunsfromthefirstMondayinOctobertoJuneofthesecondyear.Inonesession,theSupremeCourthastodealwithapproximately5,000cases,whichactuallyonlyaccountsforapproximately3%ofthecaseshandledbytheFederalCourt.Inmostcases,theSupremeCourtonlymadeabriefjudgment,citing"unqualified"or"insignificant"asthegrounds,anddeemeditunnecessaryforittoreview.Approximately200to250casesarejudgedbytheSupremeCourteachyear.Butforcertaincases,theSupremeCourtmustreview,including:thestateSupremeCourtdeniedthevalidityoftheUnitedStatestreatiesandlawsinthefinaljudgment,andthestateSupremeCourt’sfinaljudgmentsupportstheconflictswiththeUnitedStatesConstitution,treaties,orlaws.Incaseofstatelaw,theFederalCourtofAppealsruledthatthestatelawisinconflictwiththeConstitution,treaty,andlawoftheUnitedStatesandisinvalid.InthecasewheretheFederalDistrictCourtdeclaresthatthelawmadebyCongressisunconstitutionalinthejudgment,thefederalgovernmentoranyagencyorofficialshallberegardedasthecase.Civillitigationcasesofoneparty,certainotherjudgmentsoftheFederalDistrictCourt.
Astowhethertoacceptappeals,theSupremeCourthasthediscretiontodecidewhichcasesitwantstodiscuss.Itcanbebasedon"lackofsubstantivefederalissues"or"noappropriatefederalissues".Itrefusestoaccepttheappealcase;itcanalsoissuea"mediationorder"totransferimportantcasesthatitdeemsworthyoftrialtotheSupremeCourtforreview.Whetheritistoacceptappealsortoreviewimportantcases,theconsentoffourjudgesisrequired.WhetherornottheSupremeCourtacceptsacasedoesnotdependonthesignificanceofthecasetotheparties,butontheimportanceofthecasetothe"operationoftheentiregovernmentsystem."
ThechiefjudgeoftheU.S.SupremeCourtisoneofthemostimportantrolesintheU.S.politicalsystem.TheChiefJusticeoftheSupremeCourt,liketheothereightjustices,isnominatedbythePresidentandappointedwiththeapprovaloftheSenate,andservesforlife.However,hepresidedoverthepresidentialoathofofficeheldeveryfouryears,andsupervisedthepresidenttomaketheconstitutionaloath.Inform,hegavethenewpresidentthelegalstatusandconstitutionalpower.HeisalsothepresidingofficeroftheSupremeCourtandperformsmanagementresponsibilitiesasthenumberoneofficialoftheentirefederaljudicialsystem.Butheonlyservesasthe"ChiefJudge"ratherthanthe"President".Theso-called"chief"meansthathisroleismerelytoactas"thefirstpersonamongcolleagues."Hispowerandinfluencearemainly"persuasion"ratherthancommand.Exceptformanagementresponsibilitiesandaslightlyhighersalary,thechiefjudgehasthesamepowersasotherjusticesinmakingajudgment.However,thechiefjudgemayusehisjudicialopinionstoinfluenceotherjustices.Hepresidesovercourtsessionsandcourtdebates,presidesovermeetingstodiscusscases,andcanmakerecommendationsforhandlingcases,arrangeandassignjudgmentwriting.Inasecretmeetingwherethejudgmentisdiscussed,thechiefjudgehastherighttospeakfirst,whichcanplayarolein"settingthetone."Whenvotingontheverdict,thechiefjudgeisthelasttovote.Iftheotherjudgesaredividedintotwodifferentopinionsandthenumberofvotesisequal,hisvoteisdecisive.Therefore,thechiefjudgehasagreaterinfluenceonthejudgmentprocessandtheoutcomeofthejudgment,andhasplayedanimportantroleinthehistoryofpoliticaldevelopmentintheUnitedStates.Sofar,therehavebeen16chiefjusticesoftheSupremeCourtinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates,themostfamousofwhichareJohnMarshallandRogerB.Tanneyinthe19thcentury,HarlanF.Stoneinthe1940s,andEarleafterthewar.WarrenandWarrenBerg,etc.Marshallservedthelongesttime,from1801to1835,atotalof35years.However,afterenteringthiscentury,thechiefjusticesoftheSupremeCourthaveservedwithin20years.WilliamHowardTaftistheonlypoliticianinAmericanhistorywhohasservedaspresidentbeforebecomingchiefjusticeoftheSupremeCourt.
AllthejudgesoftheU.S.SupremeCourtformatribunal,andinprinciplealljudgesshouldbepresentwhenhearingcases.BeforetheSupremeCourthearscases,judgesmustreadthe"defensenotes"submittedbyallparties,includinglegalarguments,historicalmaterials,andrelevantprecedentssubmittedbyallparties,whichmaybeaslongashundredsofpages.Inadditiontothepartiestothelitigation,theSupremeCourtmayalsoreceivedefensepetitionssubmittedby"friendsofthecourt".Individuals,groups,companies,orgovernmentagenciescanactasfriendsofthecourttoexpresstheirconcernaboutthecaseandproviderelevantinformation.ThisbecameameansforinterestgroupstoputpressureontheSupremeCourt.EventhepresidentwillusethemethodofamicuscuriaetopersuadetheSupremeCourttochangeitsmindthroughthefederalgovernment'sDepartmentofJustice.Inacasein1989,theSupremeCourtreceived78amicuscuriaepleadings.
TheSupremeCourtopenedahearingtolistentooralarguments,andthedefensewascarriedoutbythelawyersofallparties.Thedefensetimewaslimited,generallyhalfanhour,andsomewererelaxedtoonehour.However,whenlawyersaremakingoralstatements,thejudgemaybeabsent-minded.Therefore,somepeoplehavemadesuchdescriptions:theywhispertoeachotherorlookthroughthematerials.Whentheythinkthelawyer'sstatementisparticularlyboring,theywilldeliberatelylookatitfromtimetotime.Ownwatch.
Afterreadingandstudyingthepleadingsandhearingoralarguments,theSupremeCourtwillholdameetingtodiscussthesecases.ThiskindofmeetingisheldinsecretbythechiefjudgeeveryWednesdayafternoonandthewholedayofFriday,soitiscalled"behind-the-scenesevent."Itsjudgmentsaremadebyvoting,andtheninejudges,includingthechiefjudge,haveequalvotingrights.DuringthereconstructionperiodaftertheCivilWar,theSupremeCourtstifledthereconstructionresultsinaseriesofjudgments,whicharousedsharpcriticismoftheSupremeCourtbyCongress.In1868,theHouseofRepresentativespassedabillrequiringtheSupremeCourttohavemorethantwo-thirds.OnlyafewcandeclareaCongressionalbillunconstitutional.However,theSenaterejectedthebill.SincetheestablishmentoftheSupremeCourt,therulinghasbeenmadebyamajorityvote.Aftervoting,awrittenopinionwillbedraftedbasedonthevotingresults.Whenthechiefjudgeisonthesideofthemajority,heassignsajudgetodraftthejudgment.Ifthechiefjudgeisintheminority,theseniorjudgeofthemajoritywillappointajudgetodraft.Buteachjudgecanwritehisownsecondopinion,regardlessofwhetherheagreeswiththemajorityopinion.Thejudgesoftheminoritycanwritetheirowndifferentopinions.Ifthejudgesofthemajorityagreewiththeresultofthejudgment,butthereasonsfortheargumentaredifferent,theycanalsowriteacoexistingstatementofsecondingopinion.Forexample,in1952,theSupremeCourtruledthatthePresident’stakeoverwasanunconstitutionalactofusurpingthelegislativepowerby6votesto3initsjudgmentontheTrumanAdministration’stakeoverofthesteelplant.Thejudgeswrotetheirownopinions,andChiefJusticeVincentdraftedanobjectiononbehalfofthethreeminorityjudgestodefendTruman’sactions.Inthisway,thisjudgmentincludessevendifferentopinions.Ofcourse,thisjudgmentisnotasinfluentialastheunanimousmajorityandunanimousjudgment,becausethejudgmentitselfis"vagueanddazzling."