Introduction
Cognitivepsychologyisoneofthelatestbranchesofpsychology.Itwasdevelopedfromthe1950stothe1960sandbecamethemaingenreofWesternpsychologyinthe1970s.1956isconsideredanimportantyearinthehistoryofcognitivepsychology.Severalpsychologystudiesinthisyearhaveembodiedtheinformationprocessingviewpointofpsychology.SuchasChomsky'slanguagetheoryandNewell(AlanNewell)andSimon(HerbertAlexandersimon)'s"generalproblemsolver"model."CognitivePsychology"firstappearedinpublicationsinUlrichNeisser'snewbookin1967.Thebook"PerceptionandCommunication"publishedbyDonaldBroadbentin1958laidanimportantfoundationfortheorientationofcognitivepsychology.Sincethen,thefocusofcognitivepsychologicalorientationhasbeenonthecognitiveinformationprocessingmodelpointedoutbyDonaldBroadbent--amodelofthinkingandreasoningthroughmentalprocessing.Therefore,theoperationofthinkingandreasoninginthehumanbrainissimilartotheoperationofcomputersoftwareinacomputer.Cognitivepsychologytheoriesoftentalkabouttheconceptsofinput,representation,calculationorprocessing,andoutput.
Researchobjects
CognitivepsychologyisapsychologytrendthatemergedintheWestinthemid-1950s.ItbecameapartofWesternpsychologyinthe1970s.Mainresearchdirection.Itstudiespeople'sadvancedmentalprocesses,mainlycognitiveprocesses,suchasattention,perception,representation,memory,thinking,andspeech.
Incontrasttobehavioralpsychologists,cognitivepsychologistsstudyinternalmechanismsandprocessesthatcannotbeobserved,suchasmemoryprocessing,storage,retrieval,andchangesinmemory.
Thestudyofcognitiveprocessesfromtheperspectiveofinformationprocessingisthemainstreamofmoderncognitivepsychology.Itcanbesaidthatcognitivepsychologyisequivalenttoinformationprocessingpsychology.Itregardspeopleasasystemofinformationprocessing,andthatcognitionisinformationprocessing,includingthewholeprocessofcoding,storageandextractionofsensoryinput.Accordingtothisview,cognitioncanbedecomposedintoaseriesofstages,eachstageisaunitthatperformscertainspecificoperationsontheinputinformation,andthereactionistheproductofthisseriesofstagesandoperations.Thevariouscomponentsoftheinformationprocessingsystemareinterconnectedinsomeway.Withthedevelopmentofcognitivepsychology,thisviewofsequentialprocessingisincreasinglybeingchallengedbyparallelprocessingtheoryandrelatedtheoriesofcognitiveneuropsychology.
Researchfeatures
Cognitivepsychologistsareconcernedwiththepsychologicalmechanismthatisthebasisofhumanbehavior,andthecoreofwhichistheinternalpsychologicalprocessthatoccursbetweeninputandoutput.Butpeoplecannotdirectlyobserveinternalpsychologicalprocesses,butcanonlyspeculatebyobservinginputandoutput.Therefore,themethodusedbycognitivepsychologistsistoinferunobservablementalprocessesfromobservablephenomena.Somepeoplecallthismethodtheconvergenceproofmethod,whichmeansthatdataofdifferentnaturesarebroughttogethertodrawconclusions.Cognitivepsychologyresearchusuallyrequiresthejointsupportofexperimental,cognitiveneuroscience,cognitiveneuropsychology,andcomputersimulations,andthiskindofmulti-facetedresearchisbecomingmoreandmorepopular.Cognitivepsychologistswanttorevealtheessentialprocessofcognitiveactivitybystudyingthebrainitself,ratherthanjustspeculatingonitsprocess.Themostcommonlyusedistostudythedifferencebetweenthecognitionofpatientswithbraininjuryandnormalpeopletoprovetheexistenceandspecificmodeofcognitiveprocessing.
Researchmethods
Cognitivepsychologistsoftendecomposetheinformationprocessingprocessintostages,thatis,thewholeprocessfromstimulusinputtoresponse.Theyoftenusethereactiontimemethod.Thatis,bymeasuringthetimerequiredforaprocesstodeterminethenatureoftheprocessandtherelationshipwithotherprocesses.
SupposeapersonlooksattheletterEprojectedonthescreen.Iftheprojectiontimeisveryshort,suchasonemillisecond,thenthepersonwillnotseeanything.Thisshowsthatperceptionisnotinstantaneous;theprojectiontimeislonger,Forexample,fivemilliseconds,thenthepersonwillseesomething,butdon’tknowwhatitis,whichmeansthatperceptionhasoccurred,butdiscriminationhasnotyetoccurred;iftheprojectiontimeislongenoughtomakepeopleseethattheletterisnotOorQ,butcannotIfitisE,ForK,thenthispersonhasapartialdiscrimination.Fromthisonecandeterminethetimeittakestofullyrecognize,partiallyrecognize,orjustseesomething.Allthisshowsthatperceptioniscumulative,anditincludesseveralspecificstages.
Reactiontimeresearchmethod
Reactiontimeresearchmethodisalsoaconvergenceproofmethod.Cognitivepsychologistsusemorechoiceresponsetimeratherthansimpleresponsetime.Becausethechoiceofreactioncanprovidemoreinformationabouttheinternalstate.
Computersimulationandanalogy
Computersimulationandanalogyisaspecialmethodusedbycognitivepsychologists.Tomakecomputersthinklikehumans,computerprogramsshouldconformtothemechanismofhumancognitiveactivities,thatis,conformtoacertaincognitivetheoryormodel.Theexpressionofacertaincognitivetheoryasacomputerprogramiscalledcomputersimulation.Therefore,computersimulationcanfirstbeusedtotestacertaintheory,finditsflaws,andimproveit.
Theoutputprovidedbythecomputersimulationcanbecomparedwithhumanbehavior.Ifthetheoryiscorrect,thentheoutputshouldbesimilartotheoutputgivenbyhumanswhensolvingthesameproblem;iftheoutputoftheprogramisdifferentfromthatofhumans,thenfindingthedifferencewillfindthebasisforcorrectingthetheory.Computersimulationcanalsopredictcomplexbehavior.Althoughweunderstandsomeconceptsandcanturnthemintoproceduresstepbystep,whentheseriesofstepsislong,complex,andrequiresalotofcontact,weoftencannotpredicttheresults.Inthiscase,computersimulationscansometimesyieldsurprisingresults.
Somecognitivepsychologistsoftenuseflowchartsofinformationseriestodescribethemaincharacteristicsofcomputerprograms.Butthiskindofflowchartdoesnothavethedetailsoftheactualcalculationofthecomputer.Itonlyprovidesanoutlineforthepreparationofacomputerprogram.Itcanbefurthertransformedintoacomputerprogram,andthispartoftheworkisoftenrealizedbycomputersoftwareexperts.
Spokenrecordings
Spokenrecordings(thinkingaloud)arealsocommonlyusedbycognitivepsychologists,especiallycognitivepsychologistswhostudythinking.Kindofmethod.Thismethodcombinedwithotherobjectivemethodscanproducegoodresults.
Mainviewpoints
CognitivepsychologyinabroadsenseincludesconstructivistcognitivepsychologyrepresentedbyPiaget,psychologicalpsychologyandinformationprocessingpsychology,inanarrowsenseItisinformationprocessingpsychology,whichusestheviewpointofinformationprocessingtostudythecognitiveprocessofreceiving,storingandusinginformation,includingperception,attention,memory,mentalimages(i.e.appearance),thinkingandlanguage.Research.Themainresearchmethodsareexperimentalmethod,observationmethodandcomputersimulationmethod.
ThemainrepresentativesofcognitivepsychologyincludeAmericanpsychologistandcomputerscientistNewell(AlanNewell,1927)andAmericanscientist,oneofthepioneersofartificialintelligence,Simon(HerbertAlexandersimon,1916).)Wait.Theirmaintheoreticalviewsare:
1.Regardingthehumanbrainasaninformationprocessingsystemsimilartoacomputer
TheybelievethatthehumanbrainisaninformationprocessingsystemItiscomposedoffourparts:receptor,effector,memoryandprocessor(orcontrolsystem).First,theenvironmentinputsinformationtothesensorysystem,whichisthesensor,andthesensorconvertstheinformation;beforetheconvertedinformationentersthelong-termmemory,itundergoessymbolreconstruction,identificationandcomparisonthroughthecontrolsystem;thememorysystemstoressymbolsthatcanbeextractedStructure;Finally,thereactorreactstotheoutsideworld.
2.Emphasizethattheexistingknowledgeandknowledgestructureinthehumanmindaredecisiveforhumanbehaviorandcurrentcognitiveactivities
ThecognitivetheoryholdsPerceptionistheprocessofdeterminingthemeaningofthestimulusthatpeoplereceive.Thisprocessreliesoninformationfromtheenvironmentandfromtheperceiver,thatis,knowledge.Thecompletecognitiveprocessisaseriesofcyclicprocessessuchasorientation-extractingfeatures-comparingwiththeknowledgeinmemory.Knowledgeworksthroughschemas.Theso-calledschemaisamentalstructureusedtorepresentourinternalizedknowledgeunitoftheexternalworld.Whentheiconreceivesexternalinformationsuitableforit,itisactivated.Theactivatediconsgenerateinternalperceptualexpectations,whichareusedtoguidethesenseorganstosearchforspecialformsofinformationpurposefully.
3.Emphasizetheintegrityofthecognitiveprocess
ModerncognitivepsychologybelievesthathumancognitiveactivitiesaretheinteractionandinteractionofcognitiveelementsAsaunifiedwhole,anykindofcognitiveactivityiscompletedwiththecooperationofothercognitiveactivitiesrelatedtoit.
Ontheotherhand,intheprocessofhumancognition,contextisveryimportant.Itnotonlyincludesthecontextualrelationshipofthelanguagematerialsthatpeoplecomeintocontactwith,therelationshipbetweenupanddown,leftandright,andorderofobjectivethings,butalsotherelationshipbetweentheoriginalknowledgeinthehumanbrain,theoriginalknowledgeandthecurrentcognitiveobject.
4.Productionsystem
Theconceptofproductionsystemcomesfrommathematicsandcomputerscience,andithasbeenwidelyusedinpsychologysince1970.Itexplainstheprocedureswhenpeoplesolveproblems.Inaproductionsystem,aneventseriesproducesanactivityseries,thatis,condition-activity(C-A).Theconditionsaregeneral,thesameconditioncanproducethesametypeofactivities;secondly,theconditionswillalsoinvolvesomeinternalpurposesandinternalknowledge.Itcanbesaidthattheconditionsofproductionincludenotonlyexternalstimulibutalsoinformationstoredinmemory,reflectingthegeneralityandinternalityofmoderncognitivepsychology.
Developmenthistory
Cognitivepsychologyistheresultofthedevelopmentofpsychology,andithasacertainconnectionwithtraditionalwesternphilosophy.Itsmainfeatureistoemphasizetheroleofknowledgeandbelievethatknowledgeisthemainfactorthatdetermineshumanbehavior.ThisideacanbetracedbacktoatleastBritishempiricistphilosopherssuchasBaconandLocke.Descartesemphasizedtheroleofdeductivemethod,andcognitivepsychologyemphasizedhypotheticaldeductivemethod.Kant'sschemaconcepthasbecomeamajorconceptincognitivepsychology.
Cognitivepsychologyalsoinheritsthetraditionofearlyexperimentalpsychology.Thereaction-timeresearchmethodproposedbyHelmholtzandDongdersinthe19thcenturyisamethodwidelyusedbycognitivepsychologiststodayandhasundergonenewdevelopments.
Wundtisthefounderofmodernexperimentalpsychology.Cognitivepsychology'sviewsontheobjectsandmethodsofpsychologyareveryclosetohisviews.Hebelievesthattheobjectofpsychologyisexperience,thecontentofconsciousness,andthemethodisintrospectionundercontrolledconditions.SomepsychologistssaythatcognitivepsychologyhasreturnedtoWundt'spsychologyofconsciousness.Thedifferenceisthatthemethodismorereliableandmoresophisticated.James'sformulationoftwokindsofmemory,namelyprimarymemoryandsecondarymemory,hasbecomethebasisofcognitivepsychology'smemoryresearchtoday.
TheinfluenceofGestaltpsychologyoncognitivepsychologyisobvious.Itisfamousfortheresearchofperceptionandadvancedpsychologicalprocesses,emphasizestheprinciplesoftheorganizationandstructureofGestalt,andopposesbehavioristpsychology,whichregardspeopleaspassivestimulusresponders.Theseviewshaveasignificantimpactoncognitivepsychology.Forexample,cognitivepsychologydefinesperceptionastheorganizationandinterpretationofsensoryinformation,andemphasizestheinitiativeofinformationprocessing.
Intermsofmethods,GestaltPsychologyadvocatesthestudyofdirectlifeexperienceandthecombinationofdirectlifeexperiencematerialswithexperimentalmaterials.Themethodiscalledthephenomenologicalmethod.ThisviewisnotonlydifferentfromWundtandTichenner'sonlyadmittingintrospectionofstrictlytrainedsubjects,andalsodifferentfrombehaviorismthatonlyvalueslaboratoryexperiments,butitisconsistentwiththebasicviewsofcognitivepsychology.
Cognitivepsychologyisagainstbehaviorism,butitisalsoaffectedtoacertainextent.Cognitivepsychologyhasacceptedstrictexperimentalmethodsandoperationalismfrombehaviorism.Cognitivepsychologyhasnotfocusedonthestudyofinternalpsychologicalprocesses,buthasalsopaidattentiontothestudyofbehavior.Itisgenerallybelievedthatpeopleuseinformationobtainedfromtheenvironment,combinedwiththingsstoredinmemory,toguidefuturebehaviorandshapethelivingenvironment.
Classicexperiment
1.Posnerexperiment-informationcanalsobevisuallycoded
Arrangetopresenttwoletterstothesubjects,Thesetwoletterscanbeshowntothesubjectatthesametime,orinsertedintoashorttimeinterval,letthesubjectpointoutwhetherthetwolettersarethesameandpressthekeytoreact,andwritedownthereactiontime.Therearetwoletterpairsused.Oneisthatthepronunciationandwritingofthetwolettersarethesame,thatis,thesameletter(AA);theotheristhatthepronunciationofthetwolettersisthesamebutthewritingisdifferent(Aa).Inbothcases,thecorrectresponseis"same".
2.ClarkandChasesentence-picturematchingexperiment-exampleofsubtractionreactiontimeexperiment
ShowtheparticipantasentenceandthenextonePictures,suchas"starsabovethecross",requirethesubjectstodetermineassoonaspossiblewhetherthesentencetrulydescribesthepicture,makeayesornoresponse,andrecordtheresponsetime.Theprepositionsusedintheexperimentare"above"and"below",thesubjectis"star"and"cross",thestatementofthesentencehasaffirmative(in)andnegative(absent),atotalof8differentsentences.ClarkandChaseenvisionedthatwhensentencesappearbetweenpictures,thecompletionofthissentenceandpicturematchingtaskwillgothroughseveralprocessingstages,andtheyproposedsomeparameterstomeasurethedurationofprocessing.
3.Sternbergisusedtostudytheadditivefactorexperimentofshort-termmemoryinformationextraction
Firstshowthesubjects1to6numbers(rememberItem),andthenlookatanumber(testitem),andstarttimingatthesametime,askthesubjecttoanswerwhetherthetestnumberhasbeenmemorizedjustnow,pressthebuttontomakeayesornoresponse,andthetimingwillstopimmediately.Inthisway,itcanbedeterminedwhetherthesubjectcanextractcorrectlyandthetimerequiredisthereactiontime.Throughaseriesofexperiments,Sternbergidentified4factorsthathaveindependenteffectsontheextractionprocessfromthechangesinthereactiontime,namelythequalityofthetestitems(highqualityorinferior),thenumberofmemorableitems,andtheresponsetype(affirmativeOrnegative)andtherelativefrequencyofeachresponsetype.Therefore,hebelievesthattheshort-termmemoryinformationextractionprocessincludesthecorrespondingfourindependentprocessingstages,namelythestimuluscodingstage,thesequencecomparisonstage,thealternativedecision-makingstage,andtheresponseorganizationstage.
4.Letterconversionexperiment("windowing"experiment)
Showparticipants1to4EnglishlettersandmarkoneaftertheletterNumbers,suchas"F+3","KENC+4",etc.When"F+3"ispresented,theparticipantisaskedtosaytheletter"I"inthethirdpositionafterFintheEnglishalphabet.Inotherwords,"F+3"istoconvertFtoI,and"KENC+4""Thecorrectansweris"OIRG",butthe4conversionresultsmustbesaidtogether.Thisshouldbethecasewhenthereismorethanonestimulusletter,thatis,onlyoneresponseismade.Take"KENC+4"asanexample.4stimuluslettersarepresentedoneafteranother.ThesubjectcanseethefirstletterKandstarttimingatthesametimebypressingthekey.Thenthesubjectmakesavoicetransition,thatis,sayLMNO,andthenagainPressthekeytoseethesecondletter(E),andthenswitch,andsoonuntilthe4lettersareallpresentedandanswered,thetimingwillstop.Thebeginningandendofthevoicetransitionaremarkedinthetimerecord.Accordingtothereactiontimedataoftheexperiment,itcanbeclearlyseenthatthethreeprocessingstagesoftheletterconversiontaskarecompleted:(1)Thetimefromwhenthesubjectpressesalettertothebeginningofthesoundconversionisthecodingstage.Encodetheletterandfindthepositionoftheletterinthealphabetinmemory;(2)Thetimeittakesforthesubjecttoperformthespecifiedconversionistheconversionstage;(3)FromtheendofthevoiceconversiontowhenthesubjectpressesthekeytoseethenextletterThetimeofisthestoragestage,andthesubjectwillstoretheconversionresultinthememory.
5.PetersonandPeterson'sexperimentonforgettingprocess
Everytimethesubjectsarepresentedwith3consonants,suchasKBR;inordertopreventretelling,Aftertheletterispresented,athree-digitnumberispresentedimmediately,suchas684.Thesubjectisrequiredtoquicklysubtract3fromthisnumberandtelltheresultofeachoperation,thatis,toreport681,678,675,etc.Recallthe3lettersjustmemorizeduntiltheexaminersendsoutthesignal.Thetimeintervalbetweenletterpresentationandrecall,thatis,thetimeforthesubjectstoperformcontinuousminus3assignmentsisdividedinto6types:3s,6s,9s,12s,15s,and18s.Buteachtimethesubjectsdidnotknowinadvancehowlongthecalculationwouldtake.Thisisadelayedrecalltestwithdifferenttimeintervals,duringwhichadditionalinterferencetasksareperformed.Theexperimentwascarriedoutmanytimes,andthelettersandnumbersusedweredifferenteachtime.Thesubjectsintheexperimentwerecollegestudents.Results:Whenthedelaytimewasonly3s,theaveragecorrectrecallrateofsubjectswasashighas80%,andalmostall3letterscouldberemembered.However,astheintervaltimeprolonged,thecorrectrecallratedroppedsharply.Whenitwasextendedto6s,Thecorrectrecallratedroppedtoabout55%;whenitwasextendedto18s,thecorrectrecallrateofthesubjectswasonlyabout10%.Theexperimentprovedthatshort-termmemorykeepsinformationshort,andifitisnotrepeated,itwillbequicklyforgotten.
6.ExperimentsofWaughandNorman-Attempttoseparatethedisappearanceoftracesandinterference
Showthesubjectsaseriesofnumbers,suchas16numbers,andfinallyAnumberispresentedwithahigh-frequencypuretone.Thislastnumberiscalledthedetectionnumber,anditonlyappearsoncebefore.Oncethesubjectsheardthesound,theyhadtorecallthedetectednumberinthebackofthepositioninfrontofit.Ifthenumberseriespresentedis3917465218736528*(thestarrepresentspuretone),thedetectionnumberis8,whichappearsinthe10thpositioninthepreviousseries,andtheparticipantshouldreportthenumber7behindthisposition.Fromthenextnumbertothelastnumberthatshouldbereported,itiscalledtheintervalnumber,whichisthenumberofitsinterferenceeffect.Thetimeusedtopresenttheseintervalnumbersiscalledtheintervaltime.Thisexperimentusesdifferentnumbersofintervalnumbers.Andintervaltime.Twodigitalrenderingspeedsareapplied:fastrenderingis4digitspersecond,andslowrenderingis1digitpersecond.Inthisway,theintervaltimecanbechangedundertheconditionthattheintervalnumberisconstant;theintervalnumbercanalsobechangedundertheconditionthattheintervaltimeisconstant.Result:Whetheritisfastorslowpresentationofnumbers,thecorrectrecallratedecreaseswiththeincreaseofintervalnumbersorinterferenceitems.Thatistosay,thecorrectrecallrateisnotsignificantlyaffectedbythedifferenceinintervaltimecausedbythedifferenceindigitalpresentationspeed.Thebigdifference,thisresultsupportstheinterferencetheory,provingthatthemaincauseofshort-termmemoryforgettingisinterferenceratherthanmemorytracesfade.
7.PodgorayandShepardvisualpositioningexperiment-verifyingtheequivalenceofappearanceandperceptionfunction
Theexperimentisdividedinto3groups:(1)Perception-MemoryGroup,theexperimentalmaterialisa5×5grid,andsomeofthesquaresarepaintedwithblacktoanEnglishletter,suchasI,L,F,E,orlettercombinationIF;thereisanother5×5gridofthesameInanyofthesquares,abluedotisdrawnasatestpoint.Intheformalexperiment,thequickindicatorisusedtopresentagridpaintedwithacertainletterorcombinationofletterstothesubject,andthenagridwithatestpointispresented,andthesubjectisrequiredtomaintainahighdegreeofaccuracyassoonaspossible.Determinewhetherthebluetestpointfallswithinoroutsideofthedisplayedletter.Useyourleftorrighthandtomakeabuttonresponse,andrecordtheresponsetime.Aletterorlettercombinationshouldbetestedmanytimes.Thetestpointsappearatleastonceinall25squares.Theorderisrandom.Thenumberoftimesthetestpointsarearrangedinsideandoutsidetheletterisalsoequal.(2)Representationgroupwithgrid.Theexperimentalprocedureofthisgroupisbasicallythesameastheperception-memorygroup,butthereisamajordifference.Inthissetofexperiments,theabove-mentionedlettersandlettercombinationswerenotformedbyusingcertainsquarestobeblackedout.Intheexperiment,thespeedindicatorwasusedtopresentthesame,butempty,5×5grid.Atthesametime,theexperimentergavetheparticipantverbalinstructionsandaskedhimtousecertainsquarestoimagineacertainEnglishletterorlettercombination.,Theselettersandtheirpositioninthegridarethesameasperception-memory,andheisaskednottochangethepositionofthelettersinthegrid.Afterthesubjectsimaginedtheletters,theyusedthetachometertopresentthesamegridwithtestpoints,andtherestoftheexperimentprocedureswerethesameasbefore.(3)Representationgroupwithoutgrid.Theexperimentofthisgroupisdifferentfromtherepresentationgroupwithgrid.Thatis,thegridwithtestpointsonlydrawstheoutermostoutline,andtheinnergridisnotdrawn.Thepurposeofthisistopreventthesubjectsfrominferringthepositionofthelettersinthegridafterthetestpointsarepresented.Theotherproceduresarethesameasbefore.
8.Paivio’sexperiment-verifyingthatrepresentationsaretwocognitivesystemsthatareparallelandconnectedwithspeech
showtheparticipantssomecards,Thereareapairofpicturesorapairofprintedwordsonthesecards(see"CognitivePsychology"WangSuWangAnsheng,PekingUniversityPressP212,Figure7-6Twopairsofpicturesandtwopairsofwords),andthesubjectsarerequiredtodetermineWhichofthepairofthingsinthepaintingorthepairofthingsmarkedbytheprintedwordsislargerintheoriginalimpression(notthesizeofthepainting,buttheactualtwothingsintheoriginalimpressionofthepersonSize),whenrecordingtheresponse.Paiviomadethefollowinghypothesis:ifthelong-termmemorycontainsonlylanguage-encodedinformation,thentheparticipant’sdecisiononthepicturematerialwillbeslowerthantheresponsetothewords,becausethepictureneedstobeconvertedintowordsbeforemakingadecision;ontheotherhand,Ifthelong-termmemoryalsocontainsvisualimageryorvisualcodinginformation,thenthesubjects’reactiontopictureswillnotbeslowerthanthereactiontowords,becausethevisualimagerycanbeobtaineddirectlyfrommemorywithoutanyfurtherconversion.Thisexperimentnotonlyprovidesexperimentalevidencefortheexistenceofrepresentations,butalsoputsforwardsomecharacteristicsofrepresentationsthataredifferentfromlanguage.
9.Artificialconceptformationexperiment(81cardexperiment)-theconceptformationprocessofhypothesistesttheory
Theexperimentalmaterialisacardwithgraphics.Theshape,color,number,andframenumberofgraphicsarethefourdimensionsthatmakeupeachparticularcard.Eachdimensionisdividedinto3levels,thatis,eachhas3attributesorvalues.Forexample,theshapedimensionhasthreeattributes:cross,circle,andsquare;colorsincludegreen,black,andred;thenumberoffiguresandthenumberofbordersalsohavethreevalues.Eachcardhasanattributeofeachofthese4dimensions,soeachcardisdifferentfromanyothercardin1-4dimensions(attributes).Inthisway,thereare81differentcards(3×3×3×3)asexperimentalmaterials.Theexperimenterspecifiesinadvancethatacertainattributeofacertaindimension(suchasred)orthepropertiesofseveraldimensions(suchasaredcircle)isauniqueattributeofanartificialconcept,thatis,anartificialconceptisformedbythesedimensionsandattributes,Theyarecalledrelateddimensionsandrelatedattributes,andtheothersarecalledirrelevantdimensionsandirrelevantattributes.Allcardswithalltherequiredattributesareconceptualinstancesorpositiveinstances,otherwisetheyarenegativeinstances.However,theexperimenterdidnottellthesubjectsanartificialconcept(thatis,itsrelatedattributes)inadvance.Atthebeginningoftheexperiment,theexaminertoldtheparticipants:thisexperimenthasaspecificconcept,whichiscomposedofacertainattributeorcertainattributes,andtheexamineeisrequiredtodiscoverthisconceptthroughtheexperimentprocess;thentheexaminerfirsttakesitoutApositiveexamplecardwasshowntotheparticipantandclearlyinformedthatitwasapositiveexample.Theparticipantshouldselectotherpositiveexamplesoftheconceptaccordingtohisownideasfromallthecardsinfrontofhim,andselectoneatatimeAftereachselection,theexaminermustgivefeedback,pointingoutwhetherhechoserightorwrong.Theexperimentcontinuedinthiswayuntilthesubjectsdiscoveredtheconcept,thatis,theycancorrectlyselectallpositiveexamplesandcantellwhattheconceptis.
10.Four-cardquestion-authenticityandfalsification
Show4cardstoadultsubjects,twoofwhichhavealetteronthefront,Onecardhasavowelletter(E),anothercardhasaconsonantletter(K);theothertwocardshaveanumberonthefront,onecardhasanevennumber(4),andtheothercardhasanoddnumber(7).Atthesametime,tellthesubjectsthateachcardhasaletterononesideandanumberontheotherside,andputforwardarule:"Ifonesideofthecardisavowelletter,theothersideisanevennumber."Thesubjectswereaskedtotellwhichcardstheyhadtolookatinordertoverifytheauthenticityofthisrule.
Relatedsciences
Cognitivepsychologyisalsoaproductoftheintersectionofpsychologyandneighboringdisciplines.Firstofall,linguisticshasagreatinfluenceonthedevelopmentofcognitivepsychology.PsycholinguisticscreatedbyChomsky'scombinationoflinguisticsandpsychologycanbesaidtobeabranchofcognitivepsychology.
Cybernetics,informationtheory,andcomputersciencehaveaprofoundinfluenceonthedevelopmentofcognitivepsychology.Thecombinationofcomputerscienceandpsychologyhasproducedafringesubjectartificialintelligence.Therelationshipbetweenartificialintelligenceandcognitivepsychologyisextremelyclose.Theappearanceofcomputershasenabledpeopletofindnewwaystoanalyzepeople'sinternalpsychologicalprocessesandstates.
Thepsychologicaldirectionofearlyexperimentalpsychologywascutoffbybehaviorismfornearlyhalfacentury.Today,cognitivepsychologycontinuesthisdirectionwhilemaintainingthestrictassumptionsofnewbehaviorismDeductivemethod,addingmachinesimulationmethod.Thisexpandstheresearchtopicsintheanalysisofthecognitiveprocess.
Turingpublishedamathematicalsystemlatercalledthe"Turingmachine"inthe1930s,whichalsohadanimpactonpsychology.QuantitativelogicandTuringmachinemakepeoplethinkthatthehumancognitivesystemcanalsoberegardedasasymbolapplicationsystem.Certainconceptsofhumanbeingscanberepresentedbysymbols,andthesesymbolscanbetransformedthroughcertainsymbolicoperations.Theseideasplayanimportantroleincognitivepsychologynotonlyintheorybutalsoinspecificresearch.
Abasicviewofcognitivepsychologyisthatcomputerscanbeusedtoanalogizepeople'sinternalpsychologicalprocesses.Thecomputeracceptssymbolinput,performsencoding,makesdecisions,stores,andgivessymboloutputontheencodedinput.Thiscanbecomparedtohowpeoplereceiveinformation,howtoencodeandremember,howtomakedecisions,howtotransformtheirinternalcognitivestate,andhowtocompilethisstateintobehavioraloutput.Theanalogybetweencomputersandcognitiveprocessesisonlyahorizontalanalogy,thatis,theinternalpsychologicalprocessisdescribedatthecomputerprogramlevel.Itmainlyinvolvestheprocessingofinformationbyhumansandcomputers,anditisananalogyintermsofperformance.Itisnotananalogyofcomputerandhumanbrainhardwareandoperatingmethods.
Theriseofcognitivepsychologyisahugechangeinthedevelopmentofwesternpsychology.Somepeoplesayitisanewschool,somepeoplesayitisanewdirection,andmorepeopleagreewithKuhn'spointofview,sayingitisanew"paradigm."Kuhncalledthereplacementofoldandnewparadigmsinscienceascientificrevolution.Inthissense,someAmericanpsychologistsbelievethattheemergenceofcognitivepsychologyisthesecondrevolutioninthedevelopmentofAmericanpsychology.(Thefirstrevolutionwastheriseofbehaviorism)
TheemergenceofcognitivepsychologyshowsthatAmericanpsychologists'viewsonbasicissuessuchastheobjectsandmethodsofpsychologyhavechanged.BehaviorismhasruledAmericanpsychologyforfortyyears,anditsinfluenceisdeeplyingrained,whilecognitivepsychologyopposesthebasicviewsofbehaviorism.
Asfortheresearchobjectsofpsychology,behaviorismadvocatesthestudyofexplicitandobservablebehaviors,regardlessofinternalpsychologicalprocesses;cognitivepsychologyshiftstheresearchfocustointernalpsychologicalprocesses.Intermsofresearchmethods,behaviorismemphasizesstrictlaboratorymethodsandrejectsallreportsofsubjectiveexperience;cognitivepsychologyemphasizesbothlaboratoryexperimentsandreportsofsubjectiveexperience.Forcognitivepsychologists,changingexternalconditionsisnotanend,itisjustanauxiliarymeanstorevealthestructureofknowledge.
Cognitivepsychologyattemptstounifyallcognitiveprocesses.Itbelievesthatcognitivephenomenasuchasattention,perception,memory,andthinkingareintertwined.TheunderstandingofagroupofphenomenahelpsexplaintheotherAsetofphenomena.Duetotheinterdependencebetweenthem,itisverylikelythataunifiedprocessingmodeofhumancognitiveprocesswillbediscovered.
Cognitivepsychologymustnotonlyunifythecognitiveprocess,butalsounifythevariousfieldsofgeneralpsychology,thatis,usecognitiveperspectivestostudyandexplainemotions,motivations,andpersonalities.Theviewpointofcognitivepsychologyhasbeenfurtherextendedtothefieldsofsocialpsychology,developmentalpsychology,physiologicalpsychology,engineeringpsychologyandsoon.
Cognitivepsychologyattachesimportancetothecomprehensiveviewpointsinpsychologyresearch,emphasizestheinterrelationshipbetweenvariouspsychologicalprocesses,andmutualrestraint.Cognitivepsychologyisexpandingtheresearchofspecificproblemsinpsychology.Bothmethodshavecontributed.Theresearchresultsofcognitivepsychologyalsocontributetothedevelopmentofcomputerscience.
ABriefHistoryofCognitivePsychology
1.Aristotleproposedthelawsoflearningandmemory.
2.TheGreekphilosopherPlatocomparedhumanmemorytoanaviary,andmemoryislikecapturingthebirdfromtheaviaryforinspection.
In3.1879,WundtfoundedthefirstpsychologylaboratoryattheUniversityofLeipzig,makingpsychologyindependentofphilosophyandphysiology.
4.Wundtproposedthatpsychologyshoulduseatechniquecalledintrospection.Introspectionmeansthattrainedobserverscarefullyandcarefullypayattentiontotheirownfeelingsandaccuratelydistinguishthese.Feelings,andreportthemasobjectivelyaspossible.
Wundt’scarefulandrigorousmethodissimilarinmanyrespectstotoday’scognitiveresearch.However,Wundtspecificallypointedoutthatadvancedmentalprocessessuchasthinking,language,andproblemsolvingarenotsuitableforresearchusingintrospectivetechniques.
5.TheGermanpsychologistEbbinghausconstructedmorethan2,000meaninglesssyllables.(Savingmethod)
6.ThefirstpersontobecalledapsychologistinAmericanhistorywasWilliamJames.Hepublished"PrinciplesofPsychology",whichwasdescribedas"probablythemostAnimportantpsychologicaldiscourse.
7.AmericanpsychologistWatsoninitiatedbehaviorism.Behaviorismisawaythatonlyreliesonobjectiveandobservableresponses.Itemphasizestheenvironmentaldeterminismofbehavior.Ratherthanapsychologicalprocess.Behavioristsbelievethatintrospectionistoosubjective,unscientific,andtoovaguetostudyproperly.Infact,theemphasisonobservablebehaviormakesbehavioristsrejectanyandpsychologicalNounsrelatedtoevents,suchasattention,appearance,ideas,orthinking.However,behaviorismregardsattentionasaconceptofpsychicism,andbelievesthatattentionshouldnothaveaplaceinscientificpsychology.
8.InEurope,animportantnewgenreisGestaltPsychology.Thisgenreemphasizesthatpeoplehaveatendencytoorganizewhattheysee."Thewholeisgreaterthanthesumofparts"isthefamousargumentofGestaltpsychology..
Gestaltpsychologistsemphasizetheimportanceof"insight"inproblemsolving.Whenyoutrytosolveaproblem,thepartsoftheprobleminitiallyseemunrelatedtoeachother.However,assuddenly"Aflashofenlightenment",thevariouspartswillworktogethertoproduceasolution.
Mostoftheearlyresearchonproblem-solvingwasdonebyGestaltpsychologists.
9.SomepsychologistsidentifiedSeptember11,1956asthebirthdayofcognitivepsychology,andmanyimportantresearchersattendedaseminarattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.